The first chapter describes the development of a common transport policy in European communities. The chapter includes the policy objectives and measures. The second chapter summarizes the history of environmental policy, the gradual development of its objectives and their penetration into transport policy, as well as the success in achieving its goals. The third chapter is dedicated to the transport policy and environment in the Czech Republic. It contains its national goals and objectives and also specific measures designed to achieve them.

O objetivo desta dissertação é avaliar os impactos do Sistema Viário Oeste, importante intervenção no sistema rodoviário da Bahia, sobre a distribuição espacial da atividade econômica e da acessibilidade. Objetivando avaliar os impactos do projeto sobre a atividade econômica, integramos um modelo inter-regional de equilíbrio geral computável especialmente desenvolvido para análises de impacto no Estado da Bahia a rede rodoviária do Plano Nacional de Logística e Transportes. A partir de simulações na rede rodoviária e de uma função de custo de frete rodoviário estimamos a redução percentual do custo inter-regional de transporte, variável relevante para integração da rede ao modelo de equilíbrio geral. Podemos destacar três resultados desta análise. Primeiro, as variações na atividade são sensivelmente mais intensas no Estado da Bahia. Segundo, dentre as regiões do Estado da Bahia, àquelas contidas nas regiões Sul, Centro-Sul e a Mesorregião Metropolitana de Salvador são as mais beneficiadas pelo Sistema Viário Oeste. Estes ganhos ocorrem em detrimento das regiões localizadas na porção setentrional do estado, que apresentam acréscimos menos expressivos ou até decréscimo da atividade econômica. Terceiro, o projeto apresenta efeitos de spillover relevantes, tendo em vista que, em todas as situações modeladas, ao menos 30% do aumento do produto real decorrente da operação do projeto beneficia regiões fora do Estado da Bahia. Objetivando avaliar os impactos do Sistema Viário Oeste sobre a acessibilidade, calculamos quatro indicadores de acessibilidade: o índice de acessibilidade locacional e três índices de acessibilidade potencial. Empreendemos então três análises sobre os índices calculados. Em um primeiro momento, avaliamos os impactos da redução dos tempos de deslocamentos decorrentes da construção do Sistema Viário Oeste sobre a distribuição espacial da acessibilidade. Como resultado desta análise, constatamos que os mesmos se concentram intensamente no Estado da Bahia. No estado, os municípios mais fortemente impactados são aqueles localizados nas regiões do Sul e Centro-Sul Baiano, com claro destaque para os municípios do Recôncavo. Em um segundo momento, analisamos os impactos do Sistema Viário Oeste sobre a desigualdade na distribuição de acessibilidade. Esta análise evidencia, em linhas gerais, o aumento da desigualdade regional na distribuição de acessibilidade entre os municípios baianos, sinalizando a intensificação da desigualdade na distribuição espacial das vantagens locacionais decorrentes das possibilidades de interação. Em um terceiro momento, empreendemos uma análise raramente efetuada em estudos desta natureza. Recalculamos os índices de acessibilidade utilizando as estimativas da variação do produto interno bruto proveniente das simulações no modelo de equilíbrio geral. Nesta análise, procuramos avaliar as consequências de se considerar às variações na atividade decorrentes do Sistema Viário Oeste sobre os índices de acessibilidade. Nesta perspectiva, observamos que a variação da atividade é relevante para explicar o comportamento da acessibilidade apenas em regiões pouco impactadas pela redução no tempo de deslocamento. Ainda, observamos que esta não impacta significativamente a análise empreendida sobre os índices de desigualdade / The objective of this dissertation is to evaluate the impacts of the Sistema Viário Oeste, an important intervention in the road network of Bahia (Brazil), on the spatial distribution of economic activity and accessibility. In order to evaluate the project\'s impacts on economic activity, we integrated an interregional computable general equilibrium model specially designed for impact analysis in the State of Bahia to the road network of the National Plan of Logistics and Transport. We then estimated the percentage reduction in inter-regional transport costs, the relevant variable for integrating the road network to the general equilibrium model, based on simulations on the road network and a freight cost function. Three results from this analysis can be highlighted. First, variations in economic activity are significantly more intense in the State of Bahia. Second, within the State of Bahia the South, South-Central mesorregions and Metropolitan Mesorregion of Salvador are the ones that most benefit from the Sistema Viário Oeste. This expansion occurs at the expense of regions located in the northern part of the State. The aforementioned regions accrue less significant positive gains or even losses in economic activity. Third, the project has significant spillover effects, given that at least 30% of the increase in real output due to the operation of the project benefits regions outside the State of Bahia. Aiming at evaluating the impact of the Sistema Viário Oeste on accessibility, we calculated four accessibility indexes: the locational accessibility index and three potential accessibility measures. We then performed three distinct analyzes over the calculated indexes. First, we evaluated the impact of travel time reductions on the spatial distribution of accessibility. As a result of this analysis, we found that the benefits generated by the Sistema Viário Oeste accrue mostly to regions in the State of Bahia. Within the state, the most heavily impacted municipalities are those located in the South-Central and South Bahia. Second, we analyzed the impacts of the Sistema Viário Oeste on accessibility inequality. This analysis shows, in general terms, the increase in regional inequality in the distribution of accessibility, signaling the increased inequality in the spatial distribution of location advantages arising from the possibilities of interaction. Third, we undertook an analysis rarely made in studies of this nature. We recalculated the accessibility indices using the estimates of the impacts on gross domestic product derived from general equilibrium simulations. In this analysis, we evaluated the impacts of activity changes resulting from the Sistema Viário Oeste over the accessibility indices. In this perspective, we observe that change in economic activity is relevant for the explanation of accessibility growth only in regions mildly affected by the decrease in travel time. Furthermore we found that changes in activity have no impact on the inequality analysis undertaken

Este trabalho busca explorar a questão do financiamento da infraestrutura rodoviária, analisando o impacto de se financiar um projeto de melhorias em uma rodovia por meio da cobrança de pedágios vis-à-vis seu financiamento pelo incremento da alíquota do imposto sobre os salários ou do imposto sobre as vendas do setor de transportes. Utilizando um modelo de transportes sequencialmente integrado a um modelo inter-regional de equilíbrio geral computável foram simuladas as alternativas de financiamento de investimentos na rodovia BR-040, rodovia recém concedida pelo Governo Federal que figurou como estudo de caso para a presente pesquisa. Os resultados indicam que a escolha da alternativa de financiamento é relevante para os impactos regionalmente distribuídos do projeto, sendo determinante na definição das regiões beneficiadas pelas melhorias. Sob a perspectiva dos impactos agregados do país, a situação que apresenta o maior impacto no crescimento do PIB nacional é o investimento financiado pelo próprio usuário da rodovia por meio do pagamento de pedágios. Sob a perspectiva regional, percebe-se uma clara área de influência da rodovia que se beneficia de suas melhorias e, quando os custos para a execução de tais melhorias são compartilhados por todo o país por meio de uma elevação tributária, acentuam-se ainda mais os benefícios observados nessas regiões / This study explores the issue of road infrastructure funding, analyzing the impact of financing a road improvement project through tolls tariff charged from the final users vis-a-vis the financing through an increase in the country\'s payroll tax rate or in the tax rate on the sales of the transport sector. Using a transport model integrated to an interregional computable general equilibrium model this research simulated alternative arrangements for financing investments made at BR-040, Brazilian road recently granted by the Federal Government and which figured as the case study for this Master thesis. The results indicate that the way the investment is financed is relevant to the regionally distributed impacts of the project, being decisive in defining which regions are benefited by the improvement project. Analyzing the country\'s aggregated results, the situation that has the greatest impact on the Brazilian\'s GDP growth is the investment financed by the road users through the payment of a toll tariff. From a regional perspective, a clear area of influence that benefits from the improvements on the road can be identified and, when the costs for executing such improvements are shared with the whole country through a tax increase, these benefits are accentuated

The thesis aims at developing approaches to transport policy decisions, based on suggestions and ideas originating from moral philosophy and philosophical decision theory.Paper I analyzes the Swedish transport policy goals, and the problem of combining policygoals with welfare economics. A problem of circularity arises as the Swedish transport policygoals are conflicting, and hence must be subject to trade-offs, while several of the goals themselves entail statements on how to prioritize or restrain goals in case of conflict.Paper II analyzes rationality in road safety policy. Problematic features are identified and discussed. The paper argues that the Swedish road safety goal is rational, since it is actionguiding and achievement-inducing.Paper III includes a model of rational choice under risk with biased risk perception. Under certain plausible conditions, a regulator should raise the population’s risk exposure. By deteriorating the environment the regulator can motivate drivers to choose behaviour that is less biased.Paper IV provides a formal representation of goal systems. The focus is on three properties:consistency, conflict, and coherence. It is argued that consistency is adequately regarded as a property relative to the decision situation or, more specifically, the set of alternatives that the agent faces. Conflict is adequately regarded as a relation over subsets of a given goal systemand should likewise be regarded as relative to the set of alternative that the agent faces.Coherence is given a probabilistic interpretation, based on a support relation over subsets of goal systems.Paper V investigates problems associated with standard deontic logic. A deontic predicate is derived, which avoids some of the major paradoxes in the area. In particular, paradoxes occurring when one obligation is derived by logical necessity from another obligation are dealt with. / QC 20100806

The population and economic growth experienced by Canadian metropolitan areas in the past twenty years, has been associated with increased levels of car ownership and vehicle kilometres travelled leading to a deterioration of air quality and public health and an increase in greenhouse gas emissions. The need to modify urban growth patterns has motivated planning agencies in Canada to develop a broad range of policies aiming at achieving a more sustainable transportation sector. The challenge however, remains in the ability to test the effectiveness of proposed policy measures. This situation has led to a renewed interest in integrated land-use and transport models to support transport policy appraisal. This research is motivated by the need to improve transport policy appraisal through the use of integrated land-use and transport models linked with a range of sub-models that can reflect transport externalities. This research starts with an exploration of the transport policy environment in Canada through a questionnaire-based survey conducted with planners and policy-makers. The survey results highlight the need for tools reflecting the sustainability impacts of proposed policies. While the second part of this research explores sustainability indicators and recommends a set of social, economic, and environmental measures, linked with integrated land-use and transport models; effort is dedicated to estimate the environmental indicators as part of this thesis. As such, the third part of this research involves the development of an emission-dispersion-exposure modelling framework. The framework includes a suite of sub-models including an activity-based travel demand model (TASHA), an emission factor model (Mobile6.2C), a meteorological model (CALMET), and a dispersion model (CALPUFF). The framework is used to estimate link-based emissions of light-duty vehicles in the Greater Toronto Area under a base scenario for 2001. Dispersion of emissions is then conducted and linked with population in order to estimate exposure to air pollution.

The population and economic growth experienced by Canadian metropolitan areas in the past twenty years, has been associated with increased levels of car ownership and vehicle kilometres travelled leading to a deterioration of air quality and public health and an increase in greenhouse gas emissions. The need to modify urban growth patterns has motivated planning agencies in Canada to develop a broad range of policies aiming at achieving a more sustainable transportation sector. The challenge however, remains in the ability to test the effectiveness of proposed policy measures. This situation has led to a renewed interest in integrated land-use and transport models to support transport policy appraisal. This research is motivated by the need to improve transport policy appraisal through the use of integrated land-use and transport models linked with a range of sub-models that can reflect transport externalities. This research starts with an exploration of the transport policy environment in Canada through a questionnaire-based survey conducted with planners and policy-makers. The survey results highlight the need for tools reflecting the sustainability impacts of proposed policies. While the second part of this research explores sustainability indicators and recommends a set of social, economic, and environmental measures, linked with integrated land-use and transport models; effort is dedicated to estimate the environmental indicators as part of this thesis. As such, the third part of this research involves the development of an emission-dispersion-exposure modelling framework. The framework includes a suite of sub-models including an activity-based travel demand model (TASHA), an emission factor model (Mobile6.2C), a meteorological model (CALMET), and a dispersion model (CALPUFF). The framework is used to estimate link-based emissions of light-duty vehicles in the Greater Toronto Area under a base scenario for 2001. Dispersion of emissions is then conducted and linked with population in order to estimate exposure to air pollution.

Urban transport systems are facing seemingly irreconcilable problems.Sustainable transport policies are necessary to address this sustainability challenge. However,their effectiveness highly depends on the public attitude towards them. A method combiningboth qualitative and quantitative research was used to redefine a sustainable transport policybased on sustainability principles, and find out the key factors of public attitude towardssustainable transport policies. Furthermore, the interrelations between these factors arerevealed by using structural equation modelling. 1685 questionnaires were sent to fourrepresentative cities in Sweden: Stockholm, Göteborg, Uppsala and Karlskrona. By using thisfirst hand data, we discovered some differences between Karlskrona and these other threecities. The negative attitudes towards reducing car use and promoting public transport inKarlskrona is opposite to the positive attitudes in other cities. The acceptance of taxes, speedlimitation and parking regulation is notably different as well. The results also indicate that citycharacteristics influence public attitudes towards sustainable transport policies more thancitizens’ characteristics. The functionality of a city is the most significant factor. Moreover,the results show a high dependence on individual car use. This suggests that planners shouldnot use the experience gained from other cities without investigating actual local conditions.

Drastic reductions of greenhouse gas emissions are required to limit the severe risks associated with a changing climate. One measure is to disrupt the fossil-fuel dependency in the transport sector, but it appears difficult and costly in comparison to other measures. Vehicles and fuels are available, but no single alternative can replace petrol and diesel in all parts of the transport system. None of them are ideal regarding all of the following aspects: vehicle performance, fuel production potential, sustainability, infrastructure, technology development and economy. Instead, several fuels are needed. In this thesis, the aim is to investigate the role of methane and hydrogen in a fossil- free vehicle fleet in Sweden, and compare them with other fuels in terms of well-to-wheel energy efficiency and economy. Processes for producing methane from biomass, waste streams from pulp mills and electricity are studied with techno-economic methods. Furthermore, well-to-wheel studies and scenarios are used to investigate the fuel chains and the interaction with the energy and transport systems. Effects of policy instruments on the development of biogas in the Swedish transport sector are also analysed and policy instruments are suggested to increase the use of methane and to introduce hydrogen and fuel cell electric vehicles. The results reveal that tax exemptions and investment support have been and will continue to be important policy instruments, but that effective policy instruments are needed to develop fuelling infrastructure and to support alternative vehicles. Electricity will be an important transport fuel for several reasons; the electric powertrain enables high energy efficiency and electricity can be produced from various renewable energy sources. Nevertheless, other fuels will be needed as complements to electricity. The results reveal that methane and hydrogen and associated vehicles may be necessary to reach a fossil-free vehicle fleet in Sweden. These fuels have several advantages: -        The function of the vehicles resembles conventional vehicles but with lower local and global emissions. -        Methane is a well proven as a transport fuel and hydrogen infrastructure and FCEVs, are commercial or close to commercialisation. -        They enable high well-to-wheel energy efficiency. -        They can be produced from renewable electricity and act as energy storage. / <p>QC 20150929</p>

The disertation investigates a crucial factor, determining decisions on development of Lithuanian transport system - Common European transport policy in the field of road and railway and provides comprehensive answers to the following questions: (1)are the EU solutions in transport development field economically consistent and feasible, (2)what are the means, suitable for its’ implementation, (3) what effects it will cause for Lithuania’s transport system as well as the whole economic and social life.

O objetivo desta dissertação é avaliar os impactos do Sistema Viário Oeste, importante intervenção no sistema rodoviário da Bahia, sobre a distribuição espacial da atividade econômica e da acessibilidade. Objetivando avaliar os impactos do projeto sobre a atividade econômica, integramos um modelo inter-regional de equilíbrio geral computável especialmente desenvolvido para análises de impacto no Estado da Bahia a rede rodoviária do Plano Nacional de Logística e Transportes. A partir de simulações na rede rodoviária e de uma função de custo de frete rodoviário estimamos a redução percentual do custo inter-regional de transporte, variável relevante para integração da rede ao modelo de equilíbrio geral. Podemos destacar três resultados desta análise. Primeiro, as variações na atividade são sensivelmente mais intensas no Estado da Bahia. Segundo, dentre as regiões do Estado da Bahia, àquelas contidas nas regiões Sul, Centro-Sul e a Mesorregião Metropolitana de Salvador são as mais beneficiadas pelo Sistema Viário Oeste. Estes ganhos ocorrem em detrimento das regiões localizadas na porção setentrional do estado, que apresentam acréscimos menos expressivos ou até decréscimo da atividade econômica. Terceiro, o projeto apresenta efeitos de spillover relevantes, tendo em vista que, em todas as situações modeladas, ao menos 30% do aumento do produto real decorrente da operação do projeto beneficia regiões fora do Estado da Bahia. Objetivando avaliar os impactos do Sistema Viário Oeste sobre a acessibilidade, calculamos quatro indicadores de acessibilidade: o índice de acessibilidade locacional e três índices de acessibilidade potencial. Empreendemos então três análises sobre os índices calculados. Em um primeiro momento, avaliamos os impactos da redução dos tempos de deslocamentos decorrentes da construção do Sistema Viário Oeste sobre a distribuição espacial da acessibilidade. Como resultado desta análise, constatamos que os mesmos se concentram intensamente no Estado da Bahia. No estado, os municípios mais fortemente impactados são aqueles localizados nas regiões do Sul e Centro-Sul Baiano, com claro destaque para os municípios do Recôncavo. Em um segundo momento, analisamos os impactos do Sistema Viário Oeste sobre a desigualdade na distribuição de acessibilidade. Esta análise evidencia, em linhas gerais, o aumento da desigualdade regional na distribuição de acessibilidade entre os municípios baianos, sinalizando a intensificação da desigualdade na distribuição espacial das vantagens locacionais decorrentes das possibilidades de interação. Em um terceiro momento, empreendemos uma análise raramente efetuada em estudos desta natureza. Recalculamos os índices de acessibilidade utilizando as estimativas da variação do produto interno bruto proveniente das simulações no modelo de equilíbrio geral. Nesta análise, procuramos avaliar as consequências de se considerar às variações na atividade decorrentes do Sistema Viário Oeste sobre os índices de acessibilidade. Nesta perspectiva, observamos que a variação da atividade é relevante para explicar o comportamento da acessibilidade apenas em regiões pouco impactadas pela redução no tempo de deslocamento. Ainda, observamos que esta não impacta significativamente a análise empreendida sobre os índices de desigualdade / The objective of this dissertation is to evaluate the impacts of the Sistema Viário Oeste, an important intervention in the road network of Bahia (Brazil), on the spatial distribution of economic activity and accessibility. In order to evaluate the project\'s impacts on economic activity, we integrated an interregional computable general equilibrium model specially designed for impact analysis in the State of Bahia to the road network of the National Plan of Logistics and Transport. We then estimated the percentage reduction in inter-regional transport costs, the relevant variable for integrating the road network to the general equilibrium model, based on simulations on the road network and a freight cost function. Three results from this analysis can be highlighted. First, variations in economic activity are significantly more intense in the State of Bahia. Second, within the State of Bahia the South, South-Central mesorregions and Metropolitan Mesorregion of Salvador are the ones that most benefit from the Sistema Viário Oeste. This expansion occurs at the expense of regions located in the northern part of the State. The aforementioned regions accrue less significant positive gains or even losses in economic activity. Third, the project has significant spillover effects, given that at least 30% of the increase in real output due to the operation of the project benefits regions outside the State of Bahia. Aiming at evaluating the impact of the Sistema Viário Oeste on accessibility, we calculated four accessibility indexes: the locational accessibility index and three potential accessibility measures. We then performed three distinct analyzes over the calculated indexes. First, we evaluated the impact of travel time reductions on the spatial distribution of accessibility. As a result of this analysis, we found that the benefits generated by the Sistema Viário Oeste accrue mostly to regions in the State of Bahia. Within the state, the most heavily impacted municipalities are those located in the South-Central and South Bahia. Second, we analyzed the impacts of the Sistema Viário Oeste on accessibility inequality. This analysis shows, in general terms, the increase in regional inequality in the distribution of accessibility, signaling the increased inequality in the spatial distribution of location advantages arising from the possibilities of interaction. Third, we undertook an analysis rarely made in studies of this nature. We recalculated the accessibility indices using the estimates of the impacts on gross domestic product derived from general equilibrium simulations. In this analysis, we evaluated the impacts of activity changes resulting from the Sistema Viário Oeste over the accessibility indices. In this perspective, we observe that change in economic activity is relevant for the explanation of accessibility growth only in regions mildly affected by the decrease in travel time. Furthermore we found that changes in activity have no impact on the inequality analysis undertaken