Master of Regional and Community Planning / Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Huston Gibson / Rural communities across America are working to strengthen their economies, provide better quality of life to residents, and build on assets such as traditional main streets, transportation initiatives, and natural amenities and resources. Today, rural communities face an array of challenges. Small communities are vulnerable to the impacts of expensive commutes, lack of mobility, financial resources, and other services. According to the USDA, “Some small communities, have limited local government staff, experience, or funding, which can mean few resources dedicated to providing sustainable amenities, regional collaboration, and other efforts to identify shared community goals and visions that can help shape growth and development” (USDA, 2011). Small communities must work hard to compete with larger cities and other communities to sustain economically and become prominent. This is often noticeable when there is a lack of investment and economic prosperity. Many rural communities have limited transportation options. Most small communities are not fit to support multiple modes of transportation, which limits access to jobs, medical care, and educational opportunities. For those who do drive, commutes to distant employment centers can be time consuming and require a large percentage of the family budget to be spent on transportation (USDA, 2011). In addition, intercity and regional mobility are drivers of economic growth in rural communities and bring tourists and other consumers to community businesses. Rural communities and small towns should be valued for their distinctive and historic features. Communities that conserve and build upon these resources, such as historic downtowns and main streets, will be better positioned to enhance quality of life for their residents. Without revitalizing main streets we would not see the places of shared memory where people are suppose to come together to live, work, and play.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Development Planning, Johannesburg 2016 / The spatial transformation project in post-Apartheid South Africa aims to change the alienating urban form that resulted from planning policies based on racial segregation. Johannesburg’s municipal government aims to capitalise on its investment on the Rea Vaya Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), through the principles of Transit Oriented Development (TOD), to catalyse densification and diversification of land uses along the Rea Vaya’s corridors. This research sought to discover whether these objectives are being realised in Diepkloof and Orlando East, Soweto. In order to answer the research question, the results of a qualitative survey of people residing around these stations were analysed in conjunction with GIS data and records of Town Planning applications for properties located around BRT stations. The following findings emerged: the rate of densification has intensified but remains constrained mainly because of restricted access to finance; land-uses have remained the same but with increased activity levels. All spatial development strategies in the study area need to be aligned to the principles of TOD. This research hopes to achieve two things. Firstly, enrich the scarce literature on spatial transformation through transit investments, particularly the BRT in South African Townships. Secondly, guide spatial planning policies in similar contexts across the country / XL2018

Neste trabalho é enfocado o problema das densidades urbanas econômicas. É feita uma análise de alguns estudos existentes sobre a questão da densidade urbana ideal, sob o ponto de vista econômico, e avaliada, através de um modelo especialmente desenvolvido, qual a influência do custo do transporte coletivo na definição da densidade ideal. Também são discutidos, ainda que de forma não aprofundada, os limites de densidade populacional suportados pelo homem. As conclusões a que se chega são que as densidades econômicas, sob vários critérios, estão, seguramente, acima de 200 habitantes por hectare e que, os limites humanos situam-se em torno de 500 habitantes por hectare. Esses valores, quando comparados às densidades em torno de 40 habitantes por hectare apresentados pelas cidades médias brasileiras, comprovam a forma irracional com que o solo urbano vem sendo ocupado no país, constituindo, o fato, um dos graves problemas que hoje o Brasil enfrenta. / The issue of economical urban densities is analyzed in this study. Related studies about ideal urban densities under the economic point of view are initially discussed, leading to the development of a model designed to evaluate the influence of urban public transportation on the definition of economical densities. Some considerations about density population limits that human beings can bear are also presented. The results suggest that economical densities are over 200 persons/ha whereas the human limits are around 500 persons/ha. The comparison of these values with the density values of Brazilian medium-sized cities (around 40 persons/ha) shows that the urban land occupation in Brazil is not rational, which is currently a serious problems for the country.

O ônibus é o principal modo de transporte público de passageiros das grandes cidades brasileiras. Ultimamente as redes de transporte público vêm sofrendo modificações estruturais importantes, visando sua melhoria. Esta Dissertação descreve a pesquisa de mestrado que teve como objetivo o estudo de métodos racionais de Roteirização de Ônibus Urbano para a escolha de um método adequado à aplicação nas grandes cidades brasileiras. A revisão bibliográfica dá mais ênfase aos métodos que atendem a esse objetivo e que possibilitam sua aplicação imediata com ou sem modificação. Para se conhecer as diferenças locais em termos de planejamento dos itinerários nas maiores capitais brasileiras, apresenta-se um levantamento feito junto a 11 (onze) órgãos gestores. Comparam-se os procedimentos adotados no Brasil com os adotados nos Estados Unidos e Canadá e escolhe-se o melhor método com base em critérios existentes na literatura. O objetivo principal foi alcançado: o método indicado pode ser aplicado, com algumas modificações concernentes principalmente à coleta de dados. Espera-se que esta pesquisa contribua para a divulgação das técnicas de roteirização baseadas em modelos matemáticos de modo a auxiliar o especialista: (a) na alteração e/ou concepção das rotas (b) na completa reformulação de complexos sistemas de transporte público. / Bus transit is the main urban public transportation mode available in large-size Brazilian cities. Brazilian transit networks have held important structural modifications lately, seeking their improvement. This dissertation describes a master’s research that had as the main objective the study of rational bus transit routing methods. The goal is to choose the best of these methods for application in large-size Brazilian cities. The literature review focused on methods which are addressed to this objective, and that could be used with or without changes for this purpose. A total of 11 (eleven) transit agencies answered a national survey made to identify local differences in the planning techniques used in the largest Brazilian capitals. Procedures adopted in Brazil were compared with the ones applied in the United States and in Canada and one method was then chosen, taken into account evaluation criteria found in the literature. The main objective of this research was reached: the method selected can be applied with some minor modifications concerning mainly the data collection procedure. This research shall contribute for the popularization of mathematical models as routing techniques that could help planners: (a) to design a new bus route and/or to redesign an existing one (b) to completely redesign complex transit systems.

O discurso que vincula as políticas de transporte às de uso e ocupação do solo data, no caso do metrô paulistano, da década de 1970, momento da implantação dos primeiros exemplos desses equipamentos na cidade, e foi acompanhado da constatação dos fortes impactos e das profundas alterações no uso do solo que essa infraestrutura causava no entorno. No entanto, contrariando o discurso corrente e oficial, a prática cotidiana mostrou que essa integração não se verificou enquanto política pública ou, quando muito, apenas buscou considerar os impactos da valorização imobiliária como estratégia de captura/ transferência de recursos de parte dessa valorização nas cercanias do metrô para financiar a ampliação daquela infraestrutura. O presente trabalho procura entender as razões que motivaram essa larga diferença entre a retórica governamental e a prática nos processos de implantação da malha metroviária paulistana. Busca, ainda, analisar as razões que levaram ao insucesso desse vínculo, apesar da vontade explicitada nos discursos do poder público e da existência, mais recentemente, de elementos técnicos e urbanísticos que, em tese, facilitariam a viabilização dessas intenções. Para isso, analisaremos ao longo das quatro últimas décadas, os projetos metroviários paulistanos, o arcabouço legal urbanístico, os planos urbanos e de transporte, comparando o conteúdo expresso nas respectivas formulações com a dinâmica ocorrida ao longo dos processos de implantação. / The discourse that links transport policies to those of land use and occupation date, in the case of the São Paulo subway, in the 1970s, when the first examples of such equipment were installed in the city, and it was accompanied by the strong impacts and the deep Changes in land use that this infrastructure caused in the environment. However, contrary to current and official discourse, daily practice showed that this integration did not take place as a public policy or, at most, only sought to consider the impacts of real estate valuation as a strategy for capturing / transferring resources from part of this valuation in the neighborhoods Of the subway to finance the expansion of that infrastructure. The present work tries to understand the reasons that motivated this wide difference between the governmental rhetoric and the practice in the processes of implantation of the São Paulo metro network. It also seeks to analyze the reasons that led to the failure of this link, despite the will expressed in the speeches of the public power and the existence, more recently, of technical and urban elements that, in theory, would facilitate the viability of these intentions. To do so, we will analyze over the last four decades, São Paulo\'s subway projects, urban legal framework, urban and transportation plans, comparing the content expressed in the respective formulations with the dynamics that occurred throughout the implementation processes.

A infraestrutura de transportes teve papel fundamental no crescimento urbano de São Paulo, determinando sua ocupação urbana e seus eixos de expansão. O presente trabalho parte de um embasamento histórico que aborda o início do desenvolvimento urbano de São Paulo, com a implantação de ferrovias e bondes em meados do século 19 e início do século 20, e a estruturação e intenso crescimento urbano da cidade com a ascensão do ônibus e do automóvel, principalmente a partir dos anos 1950 e 1960. Esta disputa entre modais é um dos fatores que colaborou para a atual crise de mobilidade na cidade, e é também tema recorrente nas iniciativas do planejamento urbano e de transportes realizadas a partir dos anos 2000, como os planos PITU 2020 e PITU 2025. A análise destes planos tem como objetivo resgatar a importância do sistema sobre trilhos para o desenvolvimento conjunto da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo, e analisar a articulação entre as políticas públicas de uso e ocupação do solo e o planejamento de transporte. / Transport infrastructure played a key role in the urban growth of São Paulo, determining its urban occupation and its expansion axes. This work starts with a historical foundation that approaches the early history of urban development of São Paulo, with the introduction of railroads and trams in the mid-19th century and early 20th century, and the structuring and intense urban growth of the city with the rise of the automobile and bus transportation mainly from the 1950s and 1960s. This dispute between transportation modes is one of the factors that contributed to the current mobility crisis in the city, and is also a recurring theme in the initiatives of the urban and transportation planning performed from the years 2000 as in the PITU 2020 and PITU 2025 plans. The analysis of these plans aims to restore the importance of the rail system for the joint development of the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, and analyze the relation between land use public policy and transport planning.

Os objetivos deste trabalho são dois: avaliar a percepção da sociedade e dos especialistas em transporte sobre os benefícios alcançados com a implantação de sistemas de transporte público urbano sobre trilhos e verificar se a percepção dos especialistas é alinhada com a percepção da sociedade. O trabalho foi desenvolvido a partir de uma pesquisa bibliográfica para identificação dos benefícios do transporte público sobre trilhos. Após definidos os benefícios foi aplicada uma pesquisa, de caráter exploratório, utilizando a escala de Likert, à sociedade, mais especificamente a alunos de graduação de cursos universitários na região metropolitana de São Paulo num total de 433 respondentes, distribuídos em 7 locais distintos. Em seguida foi realizada uma pesquisa junto a especialistas em transporte, com utilização de uma planilha para avaliação dos benefícios com base no Método de Análise Hierárquica - MAH. Na pesquisa com especialistas obteve-se 34 planilhas distribuídas em 4 grupos distintos. Os resultados mostram que a sociedade e os especialistas possuem uma percepção bastante positiva dos benefícios gerados pela implantação de sistemas de transporte público urbano sobre trilhos, havendo, no entanto, diferenças sensíveis nas avaliações, que refletem na ordem de importância dos benefícios. / The objectives of this work are, over all, two: evaluate the society´s and transportation specialists the perception on the benefits, reached with the implantation of urban public transport on tracks systems and to verify if the perception of the specialists is aligned up with the perception of the society. The work was developed from a bibliographical research that had the goal to identify the benefits of the public transport on tracks. After defined the benefits the research was applied to the society using the Likert´s scale, in exploratory way, more specifically the graduation´s pupils of university courses in the metropolitan region of São Paulo in a total of 433 respondents, distributed in seven distinct places. After that was carried through a research next to transportation´s specialists, with the resource of a spread sheet for evaluation of the benefits on the basis of the Analytic Hierarchical Process - AHP. About the research with specialists, one got 34 spread sheets distributed in four distinct groups. The results show that the society and the specialists possess a sufficiently positive perception about the benefits generated for the implantation of urban public transport on tracks systems, having, however, sensible differences in the evaluations, that they reflect in the order of the benefits importance.

Os objetivos deste trabalho são dois: avaliar a percepção da sociedade e dos especialistas em transporte sobre os benefícios alcançados com a implantação de sistemas de transporte público urbano sobre trilhos e verificar se a percepção dos especialistas é alinhada com a percepção da sociedade. O trabalho foi desenvolvido a partir de uma pesquisa bibliográfica para identificação dos benefícios do transporte público sobre trilhos. Após definidos os benefícios foi aplicada uma pesquisa, de caráter exploratório, utilizando a escala de Likert, à sociedade, mais especificamente a alunos de graduação de cursos universitários na região metropolitana de São Paulo num total de 433 respondentes, distribuídos em 7 locais distintos. Em seguida foi realizada uma pesquisa junto a especialistas em transporte, com utilização de uma planilha para avaliação dos benefícios com base no Método de Análise Hierárquica - MAH. Na pesquisa com especialistas obteve-se 34 planilhas distribuídas em 4 grupos distintos. Os resultados mostram que a sociedade e os especialistas possuem uma percepção bastante positiva dos benefícios gerados pela implantação de sistemas de transporte público urbano sobre trilhos, havendo, no entanto, diferenças sensíveis nas avaliações, que refletem na ordem de importância dos benefícios. / The objectives of this work are, over all, two: evaluate the society´s and transportation specialists the perception on the benefits, reached with the implantation of urban public transport on tracks systems and to verify if the perception of the specialists is aligned up with the perception of the society. The work was developed from a bibliographical research that had the goal to identify the benefits of the public transport on tracks. After defined the benefits the research was applied to the society using the Likert´s scale, in exploratory way, more specifically the graduation´s pupils of university courses in the metropolitan region of São Paulo in a total of 433 respondents, distributed in seven distinct places. After that was carried through a research next to transportation´s specialists, with the resource of a spread sheet for evaluation of the benefits on the basis of the Analytic Hierarchical Process - AHP. About the research with specialists, one got 34 spread sheets distributed in four distinct groups. The results show that the society and the specialists possess a sufficiently positive perception about the benefits generated for the implantation of urban public transport on tracks systems, having, however, sensible differences in the evaluations, that they reflect in the order of the benefits importance.

Esta dissertação investiga a influência de diversos fatores intervenientes nas emissões veiculares em corredores de ônibus de alta capacidade, conhecidos como BRT Bus Rapid Transit. Esses sistemas têm sido adotados em cidades de todo o mundo devido a possibilidade de atender demandas elevadas a custos relativamente baixos quando comparados com alternativas sobre trilhos, com nível de serviço adequado e possibilitando a redução de emissões. Três categorias de variáveis foram consideradas: (i) variáveis que são função do projeto do corredor de ônibus (infraestrutura, especificações tecnológicas e operacionais); (ii) variáveis que são afetadas pela implantação do corredor (impactos na velocidade média dos outros veículos, utilização de rotas alternativas e transferência modal); (iii) variáveis que dependem de políticas públicas (como mudanças do tipo de combustível ou programas de inspeção veicular). As emissões foram estimadas através de dois procedimentos. Preferencialmente utilizou-se o modelo IVE International Vehicle Emissions, que se baseia no ciclo de condução dos veículos (perfil de variação da velocidade segundo a segundo). Em alguns casos, as estimativas utilizaram resultados de medidas de emissões realizadas pelo IPT Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnológicas, para diferentes tecnologias de ônibus e ciclos de operação padronizados. Os dados necessários para a aplicação do modelo IVE haviam sido coletados anteriormente em São Paulo. Os dados operacionais dos corredores foram obtidos junto a SPTrans e a CET. As análises foram desenvolvidas em três etapas, incluindo progressivamente novas variáveis. Inicialmente foi considerado o efeito de diferentes ciclos de condução sobre as emissões dos ônibus em corredores existentes. Na segunda etapa foi feita uma análise das situações antes e depois da implantação de um corredor (Pirituba-Lapa-Centro), focalizando os impactos sobre as emissões dos ônibus e dos demais veículos, particularmente os autos, e a importância de considerar as emissões dos veículos que passam a percorrer rotas alternativas após a implantação do corredor. Finalmente, foram analisados diferentes cenários para um corredor hipotético, variando tecnologias de ônibus e avaliando os impactos de mudanças na divisão modal, condições de tráfego e outras políticas gerais. Os resultados indicaram a possibilidade de reduções significativas de emissões de poluentes quando utilizados ônibus padrão EURO 3 ou padrão EEV movidos a GNV, bem como evidenciaram a importância de infraestrutura e condições operacionais adequadas para permitir a melhoria dos ciclos de condução dos ônibus. Entretanto, ganhos adicionais são fortemente dependentes de possíveis mudanças que afetem as condições de tráfego dos autos e demais veículos, e de medidas para reduzir emissões, tais como programas de inspeção veicular e de renovação de frota. / The dissertation investigates the influence of several factors affecting vehicular emissions in high-flow bus corridors, also named BRT Bus Rapid Transit. BRT systems are being increasingly adopted in cities around the world due to the possibility to serve high demand levels at relatively low costs when compared to rail options, offering good quality of service and presenting a potential to reduce emissions. Three categories of factors are considered: (i) those directly related to the bus corridor (infrastructure design, technological and operational choices); (ii) those indirectly affected by the implementation of the corridor (such as impacts on average speed of other vehicles, particularly autos, rerouting and the potential for modal change); and (iii) factors related to general policies (such as changes in fuel type or the adoption of vehicle inspection programs). Emissions were estimated using two alternative procedures. The preferred alternative was to use the IVE International Vehicle Emission model, which bases emission estimates on the vehicle driving cycle (the time profile of speed, measured second by second). In other cases, estimates used the results of a series of emissions measurements conducted by IPT Institute of Technological Research of São Paulo for different bus technologies, operating on standard driving cycles. The developers of IVE have collected data about the technological characteristics and driving cycles of the fleet in São Paulo. Data about operations in bus corridors in São Paulo were obtained from SPTrans and CET, the local agencies responsible for bus and traffic operations. The analysis was performed in three stages, progressively extending the variables and factors included. First, the effect on bus emissions of possible changes in driving cycles in four important existing bus corridors in São Paulo was considered. A before and after analysis of a selected bus corridor (Pirituba Lapa Centro) was conducted in the second stage, looking at the impacts on emissions when other vehicles are considered, particularly autos, and highlighting the importance of taking into account vehicles that change to alternative routes after the implementation of the corridor. Finally, different scenarios were analyzed for a hypothetical corridor, varying bus technologies and considering possible impacts of changes in modal choice, traffic conditions, and other general policies. The results indicate the potential for significantly reducing pollutant emissions when Euro 3 bus technologies or enhanced GNV buses are used, as well as the important effect of appropriate infrastructure, operational and traffic engineering measures that allow improved driving cycles for buses. However, overall gains are heavily dependent on possible changes affecting autos and other vehicles, including the impact on traffic conditions and measures to reduce emissions, such as maintenance inspection or fleet renewal programs.

New York’s transit system serves millions of riders each day; the local newspapers complain about the lack of funding for infrastructure projects; and the City Council regularly hosts hearings about Bus Rapid Transit, bike-share, road safety, e-hail taxis, and gondolas. Transportation issues matter to New Yorkers, but these debates, at the policy level, often focus on technology, budgets, and regulations rather than the needs and experiences of passengers. This focus on “technical” matters allows planners and politicians to confine transportation debates to the realm of experts rather than engage the broader public in them. The failure to address the needs of passengers in Brooklyn and Queens has led to the development of dollar vans. Dollar vans are hybrid bus-taxis, also known as jitneys, that provide vital transportation links to more than 120,000 riders per day and operate beyond the control of the formal transit system governed by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA). While this ridership pales in comparison to the daily ridership on the subway or bus, it does rival bus ridership in cities like Dallas and Milwaukee and dwarfs the 50,000 peak ridership achieved by Citi Bike, New York’s celebrated bike-share system. More important, the durability of the vans reveals the failures of the existing formal system to serve all New Yorkers. I argue that this failure is important for three reasons. First, the vans respond to a geographically specific problem: adequate access to inadequate service. The vans thrive in busy transit corridors where MTA-owned buses come too infrequently, are overcrowded, or are regularly stuck in traffic. On these busy routes, the vans provide a more reliable ride and alternative for transit-dependent populations looking to bypass the faltering bus system. Second, regulations fail to reflect daily practice. This gap between practice and policy leaves van operators and passengers in an awkward limbo that criminalizes an industry and jeopardizes the mobility of entire neighborhoods. Third, since the vans operate outside of the formal system, traditional metrics, such as ridership, travel time, vehicle revenue miles, etc., are not collected and compared against the metrics of other modes operated by the MTA. As long as the vans remain an unknown quantity, it is impossible for the City and State to serve transit-dependent populations in Brooklyn and Queens. In this dissertation, I use a mixed-methods research design to probe the world of the vans and argue that continued regulatory uncertainty, long the friend of the vans, has the potential to upend them as development pressures and capital investment in Central Brooklyn intensifies.