Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T20:09:04Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissFRS.pdf: 1943077 bytes, checksum: 48aa03cd1bc74beca050f525b4e74899 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-02-23 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / Traditional and recycled mortar and concrete have been produced and the results from simple compression strength and water absorption tests have been compared. Recycled mortar and concrete have been produced out of sludge from water treatment plants and rubble from construction and demolition. The amount of aluminum present in the leached extract from the solubilization process of the concrete produced with the addition of both sludge from water treatment plants and rubble from construction and demolition has been determined. In terms of simple compression strength, the addition of up to 4 % of sludge in mass in place of natural sand has made it possible to obtain recycled concrete with similar characteristics to traditional concrete. Although water absorption of concrete and mortar produced from both sludge from water treatment plants and rubble from construction and demolition is much higher than water absorption of traditional mortar and concrete, the results have not made it impossible to use them; it has just restricted their application to places free from moist resulting from weather conditions or use characteristics. The leached extract resulting from the solubilization of the concrete produced out of both sludge from water treatment plants and rubble from construction and demolition has shown aluminum concentration higher than the drinkability standard defined by the Brazilian standards agency (ABNT), but not in such a level to turn the rubble from the recycled product dangerous to human health. / Argamassas e concretos convencionais e reciclados com agregados de entulho de concreto e lodo de estação de tratamento de água foram produzidos e os resultados dos ensaios de resistência à compressão axial e absorção de água foram comparados. Foi determinada a quantidade de alumínio presente no extrato lixiviado resultante do processo de solubilização dos concretos produzidos com a adição conjunta dos resíduos de construção e demolição civil e lodo de estação de tratamento de água. Em termos de resistência à compressão axial, a adição de até 4 % em massa de lodo substituindo o agregado miúdo natural possibilitou a obtenção de concretos com características similares as dos concretos convencionais. Embora a absorção de água dos concretos e das argamassas produzidas com a adição conjunta de lodo de estação de tratamento de água e agregados reciclados de entulho de concreto seja muito maior que a absorção de água dos concretos e argamassas convencionais, os resultados não impediram o uso, apenas o restringiu a lugares livres de umidade e da ação de intempéries. O extrato lixiviado resultante do processo de solubilização do concreto produzido com adição conjunta de lodo de estação de tratamento de água e agregado reciclado de entulho de concreto apresentou concentração de alumínio superior ao padrão de potabilidade da água definido pelo Anexo H da NBR 10.004, mas não em teor que torne perigoso o possível resíduo do produto assim reciclado.

The sustainability of quality of life in cities is related especially with the operating conditions of urban Sanitation Services. Environmental quality is a fundamental aspect for urban quality of life and public policies are increasingly attentive to the correct equation of collection and treatment of sewage services, the main component of urban sanitation. This paper analyzes the current state of the collection and treatment systems of Sewage of the city of Santana do Livramento-RS, which is located on the aquifer recharge zone of Guarani, reviews its current weaknesses in terms of operation and coverage of services sewage and also conformities management services in relation to the Municipal Legislation, State and Federal governing this area. The survey included the performance of the main system of collection and treatment current city, its central region, led to the Sewage Treatment Station - ETE's "Imhoff Park", designed in the 1920s and its suitability over the more than eighty years of operation. Were reviewed also detail the non-operational compliance and management of the services that are the responsibility of the Department of Water and Sewerage - DAE, Municipal Municipality created (reformatted) in 1969. We also assessed the prospects of the systems as a whole, identifying some factors that need more care in the evolution of these services. Existing data were used in a Municipal Sanitation Plan developed in 2009/2010. There was a lack of updated records, operating manuals, records and reliable statistical information. The management of the DAE Sanitary sewerage presented several nonconformities in relation to specific legislations in force and the Operating License of the ETE Imhoff Park. Affluent analysis, effluents and receiving body showed, in general, lower average percentages pollutant removal. / A sustentabilidade da qualidade de vida nas cidades está relacionada especialmente com as condições de funcionamento dos serviços de Saneamento Urbano. A qualidade ambiental é um dos aspectos fundamentais para a qualidade de vida urbana e as políticas públicas estão cada vez mais atentas ao correto equacionamento dos serviços de coleta e tratamento dos esgotos sanitários - principal componente do saneamento urbano. O presente trabalho analisa a situação atual dos sistemas de coleta e tratamento dos esgotos sanitários da cidade de Santana do Livramento-RS, que se situa sobre a zona de recarga do aquífero Guarani revisa suas fragilidades atuais, em termos de operação e cobertura dos serviços de esgotos e também de conformidades da gestão dos serviços em relação às legislações municipais, estaduais e federais que disciplinam essa área. A pesquisa incluiu o desempenho do sistema principal de coleta e tratamento da cidade, em sua região central, conduzida para a Estação de Tratamento de Esgotos - ETE do ―Parque do Imhoff‖, projetada na década de 1920 e sua adequação ao longo dos mais de oitenta anos de funcionamento. Revisaram-se também, detalhadamente as não conformidades operacionais e de gestão dos serviços que são de responsabilidade do Departamento de Água e Esgotos DAE, Autarquia Municipal criada (reformatada) em 1969. Foram também avaliadas as perspectivas dos sistemas como um todo, identificando-se alguns fatores que necessitam de maior cuidado na evolução desses serviços. Foram utilizados dados existentes no Plano Municipal de Saneamento Básico elaborado em 2009/2010. Observou-se a inexistência atualizada de cadastros, manuais de operação, registros e informações estatísticas confiáveis. A gestão dos serviços de esgotos sanitários do DAE apresentou diversas não conformidades em relação a legislações específicas em vigência e com a Licença de Operação da ETE do Parque do Imhoff. As análises de afluentes, efluentes e corpo receptor demonstraram, de modo geral, baixas porcentagens médias de remoção de poluentes.

FundaÃÃo de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Cearà / Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o potencial de reÃso de Ãguas no Estado do Cearà como forma de contribuir para o efetivo gerenciamento dos recursos hÃdricos e para a conservaÃÃo ambiental do Estado. O trabalho foi desenvolvido observando as seguintes etapas: (1) levantamento bibliogrÃfico; (2) caracterizaÃÃo do Estado do Cearà (Ãrea de estudo); (3) definiÃÃo das alternativas e critÃrios de reÃso; (4) levantamento das ETEs com respectivas vazÃes e as caracterÃsticas do sistema de tratamento para seleÃÃo daquelas cujos efluentes podem ser utilizados; (5) proposiÃÃo do(s) tipo(s) de reÃso para as ETEs selecionadas; (6) estudo de viabilidade econÃmica financeira para o reÃso industrial; (7) proposiÃÃo de condiÃÃes e diretrizes para o fortalecimento do reÃso no Estado; (8) apresentar e discutir os resultados; (9) avaliar o trabalho desenvolvido. O trabalho tem como resultados: (1) O reÃso industrial mostrou-se viÃvel para ser implantado no Distrito Industrial (DI) de MaracanaÃ, sendo que o efluente do tipo PadrÃo 2 (efluente da lagoa de estabilizaÃÃo, tanque de mistura para correÃÃo do pH, floculador, decantor tanque de recarbonataÃÃo e efluente final) foi o que apresentou melhor viabilidade econÃmico financeira. (2) Pesquisa realizada junto Ãs empresas do DI de MaracanÃu evidenciou grande receptividade por parte dos usuÃrios potenciais, desde que sejam garantidos qualidade, quantidade e preÃo competitivo com a atual fonte de abastecimento.(3) Dos 12 sistemas avaliados, a ETE Tupamrim foi a que apresentou condiÃÃes mais adequadas para a prÃtica do reÃso urbano nÃo potÃvel â rega de Ãreas verdes de Fortaleza. (4) Os sistemas de lagoas de estabilizaÃÃo em operaÃÃo na RMF e interior do Estado podem disponibilizar uma vazÃo de cerca de 1.872,0 L/s, e tais volumes poderÃo beneficiar cerca de 3.279,66 hectares, considerando uma demanda para irrigaÃÃo igual a 18.000 m3/ha.ano; ou suprir, em mÃdia, uma Ãrea de cultivo de peixes de 1.497.600 m2 (149,7 ha). Com base nos resultados pode-se concluir: (1) A implementaÃÃo de reÃso de Ãgua no Cearà à uma alternativa importante a ser considerada no Plano Estadual de Recursos HÃdricos, pois poderÃ: contribuir efetivamente na preservaÃÃo dos recursos hÃdricos; aumentar a oferta de Ãgua para os setores agrÃcola, piscÃcola e industrial no Estado, por meio da disponibilizaÃÃo da Ãgua recuperada aos usos que possam prescindir de potabilidade; e disponibilizar um volume maior de Ãgua de boa qualidade aos usos nobres, conforme preconiza a Agenda 21. (2) Dentre as modalidades de reÃso estudadas para o Estado, todas se mostraram viÃveis, sendo o reÃso industrial o que vai necessitar de um maior investimento. Jà os reÃso agrÃcola e em piscicultura sÃo os mais fÃceis de serem implementados, necessitando apenas de uma determinaÃÃo do Governo do Estado para que seja firmada uma parceria entre Cagece e SDA e, dessa forma, viabilizar a implantaÃÃo dos projetos. (3) O reÃso de Ãguas residuÃrias no Estado do Cearà à uma alternativa viÃvel, desde que haja uma regulamentaÃÃo para minimizar os riscos epidemiolÃgicos que podem advir da prÃtica sem a adoÃÃo de barreiras mÃltiplas para garantir a proteÃÃo da saÃde populacional. à incontestÃvel a necessidade do estabelecimento de diretrizes que permitam que a prÃtica do reÃso se torne segura e difundida, contribuindo assim para a minimizaÃÃo do problema de escassez de Ãgua no Estado. / The main objective of this work was evaluate the potential for water reuse in the state of Ceara as a contribution to the effective management of water resources and the conservation of the state. It consisted of the following stages: (1) literature, (2) A bibliographical survey; (2) description of the Ceara State (area under study); (3) definition of alternatives and criteria for reuse, (4) survey of treatment plants with respective flow rates and characteristics of treatment system for selection of those whose effluent can be used, (5) proposition (s) type (s) to reuse the selected treatment plants, (6) economic feasibility study for the financial reuse industrial (7) conditions of proposition and guidelines for the strengthening of reuse in the State, (8) present and discuss the results and (9) assessing the work undertaken. As results of the study we can mention: (1) The industrial reuse was feasible to be deployed in DI MaracanaÃ, and the effluent standard type 2 (effluent from the stabilization pond, mixing tank for pH correction, flocculant, decantor, carbonation tank and final effluent) showed the best economic and financial viability. (2) Research conducted with companies in the DI Maracanaà showed great responsiveness on the part of potential users, since it is guaranteed quality, quantity and price competitive with current power supply. (3) Of the 12 systems evaluated the Tupamirim WTPT presented the best conditions for the practice of non-potable urban reuse - irrigation of green areas in Fortaleza (4) The system of stabilization ponds in operation in the RMF and the State can provide a flow of about 1872.0 L / s, and these volumes will benefit approximately 3279.66 hectares, whereas the demand for irrigation equal to18,000 m3/ha.ano, or supply, on average, a growing area of 1,497,600 m2 fish (149.7 ha). The main conclusions of this work are: (1) The implementation of water reuse in Cearà is an important alternative to be considered in the State Plan for Water Resources, as it may: contribute effectively in the conservation of water resources, increase the supply of water for agricultural, fish and industry in the state, through the provision of reclaimed water for uses that can dispense the drinking, and provide a greater volume of water of good quality to end uses, as recommended by Agenda 21.(2) Among the types of reuse study for the state, all proved viable. As the industrial reuse which will require a larger investment. Since the re-use agricultural and fish are the easiest to implement, requiring only a determination of the State Government so that it signed a partnership betweean Cagece and SDA thus enable the implementation of projects.(3) The reuse of wastewater in the state of Ceara is a viable alternative, but necessary regulations to mitigate the pest risk that may arise from the practice without the adoption of multiple barriers to ensure protection of population health. Is no denying the need to establish guidelines that allow the practice of reuse to become secure, ubiquitous, thus helping to minimize the problem of water scarcity in the state.

A crescente preocupação dos órgãos de vigilância ambiental e sanitária sobre a segurança e a qualidade dos recursos hídricos tem orientado o desenvolvimento de diversas pesquisas voltadas para uma revisão do padrão tecnológico atual, quanto à gestão de resíduos gerados em estações de tratamento de água. Neste trabalho, foram avaliadas as principais características dos resíduos gerados em um sistema de tratamento de água de ciclo completo na cidade de Registro (SP) e sua correlação com a qualidade do meio hídrico, pelo estudo dos efeitos físico-químicos de seu descarte na qualidade da água e do sedimento da Bacia Hidrográfica do rio Ribeira de Iguape. Um programa de monitoramento da microbacia foi estabelecido, verificando-se o atendimento dos elementos analisados ás exigências de legislações federais, como a Resolução CONAMA 357/2005 e a Portaria 518. Foram constatadas alterações na qualidade da água superficial do corpo d\'água receptor em períodos de até 4 horas, após o despejo, e para uma distância de até 50 m a jusante do descarte do lodo da ETA. A análise descritiva mostrou ser predominante a concentração de alguns metais durante o descarte, como o manganês. A análise dos organismos bentônicos apresentou uma indicação de que os grupos observados não foram diretamente afetados pelo despejo do lodo da ETA. O presente trabalho não detectou indícios de que a contaminação constatada no local de despejo atingisse o rio Ribeira de Iguape, porém, a presença de alumínio em amostras de sedimento próximo ao local de descarte mostrou que o descarte sistemático do lodo pode comprometer em longo prazo a qualidade da água do corpo d\'água receptor. / The growing concern of environmental and sanitary surveillance about the safety and the quality in the hydric resources, guides the development of many researches to a revision of the current technological pattern, related to the administration of residues generated in the water treatment plants. This work evaluated main characteristics of the residues generated in water treatment plant with complete cycle in the Registro town (SP) and the correlation with quality of the environment, by studying physical-chemical effects of its discharge in the quality of water and sediment of Ribeira de Iguape River Basin. A monitoring program was established, verifying the attendance of the elements analyzed to the demands of federal legislations, such as Resolução CONAMA 357/2005 and Portaria 518. Some alterations were verified in the quality of superficial water of the receiving watercourse, in periods up to 4 hours after the discharge and for a distance of 50 m to the place of the discard of sludge. The descriptive analysis showed to be predominant the concentration of some metals during the discharge, as manganese. The analysis of the benthonic organisms pointed out that the groups observed as typical of the area were not directly affected by sludge discharge. The present study did not detect indications that the contamination verified reached Ribeira de Iguape River. However, the systematic discharging of the sludge may commit at long date the water quality of the receiving watercourse.

Apesar dos avanços nos índices de coleta e tratamento de esgotos no Estado de São Paulo, ainda existem incertezas sobre a efetividade dos sistemas de tratamento existentes, uma vez que são escassas as informações sobre o desempenho das ETEs em operação no país. Por meio da aquisição e análise de dados de desempenho do sistema, é possível a avaliação do cumprimento da legislação ambiental e a melhoria das condições operacionais, reduzindo, efetivamente, o impacto do lançamento sobre os recursos hídricos. Nesse sentido, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar estatisticamente o desempenho de lagoas de estabilização - tecnologia de tratamento mais utilizada no Estado de São Paulo - localizadas na UGRHI 12 - Baixo Pardo/Grande, todas com vazão de projeto inferior a 300 L/s, utilizando dados de automonitoramento fornecidos pelos prestadores de serviço. A avaliação compreendeu um período de 10 anos (2005 a 2014) e abrangeu desde os projetos das lagoas até a caracterização dos dados afluentes e efluentes das ETEs, incluindo também o impacto do lançamento dos esgotos tratados nos corpos receptores e a qualidade dos corpos d\'água em escala de bacia hidrográfica, utilizando os dados da rede de monitoramento da CETESB na UGRHI 12. O desempenho das ETEs foi avaliado quanto aos parâmetros DBO, DQO, CT, E. coli, SS, N-amoniacal e P-total, considerando tanto as faixas típicas apontadas na literatura, como o atendimento aos padrões de lançamento e qualidade. Os dados disponibilizados foram bastante heterogêneos, apresentando, em sua maioria, periodicidades de amostragem variáveis e interrupções no monitoramento, o que impediu, em alguns casos, a realização de uma análise mais consistente. As concentrações afluentes de matéria orgânica foram mais elevadas do que os valores usuais expressos na literatura, sendo a causa mais provável o baixo consumo de água aliado ao tipo de amostragem praticado (amostragem simples). De maneira geral, o desempenho das lagoas, considerando as eficiências médias de remoção de DBO e DQO, ficou dentro do esperado, o que não foi suficiente, contudo, para garantir percentuais elevados de conformidade com a legislação do estado de São Paulo, os quais resultaram abaixo de 80% na maioria das ETEs. Quanto às concentrações nos esgotos tratados, o desempenho ficou aquém do esperado, o que implicou no lançamento de efluentes com concentrações elevadas de matéria orgânica, embora de acordo com os padrões de lançamento pelo critério da eficiência de remoção. A avaliação do corpo receptor mostrou que, mesmo se tratando de vazões relativamente baixas, tais lançamentos foram capazes de impactar os cursos d\'água, notadamente aqueles com baixas razões de diluição. Finalmente, em escala de bacia hidrográfica, verificou-se que, nos corpos d\'água da UGRHI 12, ainda permanecem percentuais elevados de desconformidade para P-total e E. coli, contribuindo para esse cenário tanto as fontes de poluição pontuais como as difusas. / Despite advances in wastewater collection and treatment indicators in São Paulo state, there are still uncertainties about the effectiveness of existing treatment systems, since they is little information on the performance of WTPs operating in the country. Throughout the acquisition and analysis of system performance data, it is possible to evaluate the compliance with environmental legislation and improve operating conditions, effectively reducing the impact of the discharge on water resources. In this sense, the present study aimed to evaluate statistically the performance of stabilization ponds - wastewater treatment technology most widely used in São Paulo state - located in UGRHI 12 - Baixo Pardo/Grande, all of them with design flow rates below 300 L/s, using self-monitoring data given by the service providers. The evaluation comprised a period of 10 years (2005-2014), including from the projects of the ponds to the characterization of WTPs influent and effluent data, also incorporating the impact of treated wastewater release in receiving bodies and the quality of water bodies in watershed scale, using the data from CETESB\'s monitoring network in UGRHI 12. The performance of the WTPs was evaluated for BOD, COD, total coliforms, E. coli, suspended solids, ammonia and total phosphorus, considering the typical ranges mentioned in the literature and compliance with discharge and water quality standards. The provided data were quite heterogeneous, most of them presenting variable sampling periodicities and interruptions in monitoring, sometimes hindering a more consistent analysis. The influent\'s concentrations of organic matter were higher than the usual values expressed in the literature, which was most likely caused by low water consumption combined with the type of sampling practiced (single sampling). In general, the ponds\' performance, considering the average BOD and COD removal efficiencies, was as expected, however, such values weren\'t enough to ensure high percentage of compliance with São Paulo\'s environmental legislation, since the percentages were below 80% in most WTPs. Regarding the concentrations in treated wastewater, the performance was less than expected, which resulted in the discharge of effluents with high concentrations of organic matter, even though they were in compliance with discharge standards by the removal efficiency criterion. The evaluation of the receiving stream showed that, even consisting of relatively low flow rates discharges, such releases were able to impact the water bodies, especially those with low dilution ratio. Finally, in watershed scale, it was found that, in UGRHI 12 water bodies, there are still high percentages of non-conformity for total phosphorus and E. coli, contributing to this scenario both point and non-point sources of pollution.

Among all nanomaterials, which are intentionally manufactured and applied, nanosilver (nAg) is one of the most frequently applied nanomaterials. It is introduced into wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) due to its use as antimicrobial resource in household and medical care products and hence concern raised regarding its impact on activated sludge organisms and their purification efficiency. Within this thesis, the effects of nAg on single species, simple food chains and communities related to activated sludge were investigated. Among all tested species in this thesis, the gammaproteobacteria R. planticola was the most sensitive organism regarding the tested nAg material, NM-300K. The environmental risk assessment (ERA), based on an assumed predicted environmental concentration derived from modeled concentrations of other types of nAg, revealed no risk for the activated sludge. This result should be interpreted with care, considering the tolerantly chosen safety factor for calculation of the predicted no effect concentration and the assumptions which were made concerning environmental concentrations. Differences in acute toxic effects of nAg on the ciliate P. tetraurelia were observed depending on the type of medium and the exposure pathway (via medium or via bacterial food). More detailed investigations are required to analyze the distribution, availability and uptake of nAg into ciliates in the respective tests. In chronic experiments concentration response was very steep in the range between the effect concentration determined in acute toxicity testing (resulting in 100% mortality) and a tenfold lower concentration (no effect observed) for both exposure pathways. Community experiments with activated sludge exposed to realistic and high concentrations of nAg revealed acute effects on the protozoan community at high nAg concentration using multivariate statistics for data analysis. In contrast, the sludge biotic index was not meaningful for data interpretation, as no differences were observed between the samples of different treatments. For chronic testing, more preliminary work is required to develop a protocol for artificial wastewater which serves the needs of activated sludge organisms over longer time periods and which retains a typical composition of the activated sludge community.

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Engineering, Department of Industrial Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2017. / Access to clean and adequate water is a universal and basic human right that feeds into the 6th of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This goal aims at ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Clean water is referred to as potable water, which is safe for human consumption and offer low risk of immediate or long term harm. Raw water undergoes rigorous processing which consists of coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, disinfection and storage, to produce potable water. Each module or stage consumes chemicals and energy resources and thus incurs costs. To achieve the aim of the study, which was to synthesize an optimised potable water treatment network and a water usage analysis model, the Umzinto Water Treatment Plant (UWTP) and its distribution system was used as the study area. This treatment plant is located within Umdoni, a local municipality of the Ugu District Municipality in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. This study’s objectives were fourfold and the first objective was to identify and quantify key raw water quality parameters affecting treatment at the UWTP. The second objective was to design a genetic algorithm for the potable water treatment process control. The third objective was to evaluate the Umzinto Water Distribution System’s Non-Revenue Water (NRW) while the fourth objective was to develop a model for water usage analysis. For the first objective, data for water quality parameters for the water treatment from July 2006 to June 2013 were statistically analysed. This data were collected from the UWTP’s historical records. To improve the data’s integrity it was pre-processed using cubic hermite interpolation. After the pre-processing trend lines and box plots were used to determine the parameters’ significance compared to the standard values stipulated in the South African National Standard (SANS 241). The trend lines were used to analyse the frequency of observations that were higher than the standard values according to SANS 241. The box plots were used to determine the minimum, median, maximum and mean of the data sets. The mean values for each parameter were compared to the SANS 241 value to determine their significance. The raw water quality parameters were then correlated to the chemical dosages for lime, polymer, potassium permanganate and chlorine. The key parameters selected from the correlation analysis were algal count, manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), Escherichia coli, total coliforms, colour, odour, conductivity, turbidity, suspended solids (SS), pH, temperature, total organic carbon (TOC,) and Hardness. A number of methods can be used to achieve such optimisation, including artificial neural networks, dynamic programming, linear and non-linear programming, and this study utilised a genetic algorithm as an optimisation tool to achieve the second objective of optimising water treatment at the UWTP. For the model development, data from the correlations obtained for objective 1 were used. The model was aimed at reducing the cost of chemical dosage and four chemical dosage prediction models were developed using genetic algorithms and these were then used to produce a combined chemical dosage cost prediction model. The programming interface utilised for these models was Matlab. In developing these models, the data were first pre-processed to remove outliers and fill in the blanks using a Microsoft Excel Add-in that was developed for this particular purpose. The next step involved a curve fitting exercise in Microsoft Excel 2013. Matlab was then used to code the genetic algorithm that combined and optimised the solutions obtained from the curve fittings. The results showed that genetic algorithms can be reliably used to predict the chemical dosages and hence reduce water treatment costs. After treatment, water is pumped into the distribution system for consumption. It is therefore important to ensure that all the pumped out treated water reaches the consumer. The third objective therefore assessed the NRW for the Umzinto Water Distribution System for the period between July 2013 and June 2014. The data used for this objective was provided by the Ugu District Municipality. The method used combined the top-down approach and the component-based approach. This combined approach was modified to enable the calculation of all the components that are required in a standard South African Water Balance. The results showed that the distribution system had a high value of NRW, which was 27.9% of the System Input Volume. The major component of NRW was Real Losses, that is, losses that can be mitigated by improving maintenance. The fourth objective was to develop a model for water usage analysis that would reduce the time taken to evaluate NRW and also improve the analysis of the NRW components using Microsoft Visual Basics 2012 and Microsoft SQL Server 2012 development interfaces. The Visual Basics enabled the development of a graphic user interface that was user-friendly and minimised the time taken to learn the software. The software platform developed was able to import the data required to construct a standard International Water Asssociation (IWA) Water Balance, calculate all the components of NRW, store historical data for the water distribution systems and report on a rolling year basis. A model for water usage analysis was developed and made available for usage by practitioners in Ugu District. The model was developed for the specific study area and further studies would be required in order to validate it in a different setting. The results obtained for the first objective led to the conclusion that, there was very high pollution emanating from communities and activities close to the raw water sources, especially the EJ Smith Dam. The results from the first objective were also used to determine parameters for the models developed in the second objective. From objective two it was concluded that genetic algorithms can be reliably used to predict chemical dosages and hence reduce water treatment costs. The third objective’s results showed that 27.9% of treated water pumped into the distribution system is NRW. Which is a concern because 65% of this are real losses which have maintenance related problems. The fourth objective’s results showed the practicality of designing model that could be used determine all the important components of NRW that would take time to evaluate manually. It would also store historical data for the water distribution system and report on a rolling year basis. Implementation of this software would help minimise the errors associated with manual calculation of NRW and improve the availability of data for research and analysis. From the research findings, it is recommended that the treatment plant should change the way it is dosing chemicals in the balancing tank. The method currently being used is prone to error. The analysis of NRW showed that Real Losses were a major challenge in the Umzinto Distribution System. There is need to develop a maintenance program to cater for leakage. Communities also need to be educated on the importance of reporting leakage in the network. / M

M.Sc. / The world is focusing on increasing the number of people who have access to safe drinking water due to the ascending numbers of drinking water related illnesses reported annually in rural areas where water is not treated before consumption. To meet this goal, household water treatment has to be introduced especially in places where homes are wide apart making centralised water treatment improbable. Most readily available household water treatment systems (HWTS) such as membrane filters may not be affordable in rural areas due to power requirements and degree of ability to use and maintain them. This study was therefore aimed at designing and constructing HWTS using readily available material such as sand, gravel, zeolites and clays. Five HWTS were designed, built, evaluated and compared based on their ability to remove chemical contaminants such as iron, arsenic and fluorides from drinking water. The types of filters that were used during this study are the biosand filter (BSF), a modified biosand filter with zeolites (BSFZ), a silver impregnated porous pot (SIPP) filter, a ceramic candle filter (CCF) and a bucket filter (BF). Effectiveness of the filters in reducing physical parameters such as turbidity and visual colour was also assessed. The water treatment devices had the following flow rates; 1.74 L/h – 19.20 L/h (BSFZ), 0.81 L/h – 6.84 L/h (BSF), 0.05 L/h – 2.49 L/h (SIPP) and 1.00 L/h – 4.00 L/h (CCF). The flow rates were high at the early stages of filter use and decreased with increase in the volume of water filtered through. The flow rates of the filters were affected by the turbidity of intake water which was between 1.74 NTU – 42.93 NTU and correlated to chlorophyll a concentrations. The household water treatment technologies reduced turbidity to levels less than 1 NTU (> 90% reduction) in the following order SIPP > BSFZ > BSF > CCF > BF. The filters achieved greater than 60% retention of calcium, magnesium, iron and arsenic. These contaminants with the exception of arsenic were reduced to acceptable levels of the South African National Standard of drinking water (SANS 241, 2004). Compared to the other filters, the BSFZ performed better in removing nitrates, phosphates and fluorides although the overall retention efficiency was low. Total organic carbon was removed greatly by the CCF (39%) and the least removal was by the BF. The overall performance of the filters in reducing contaminants from drinking water was in the order BSFZ > BSF > SIPP > CCF > BF. Filter washing vi resulted in an overall increase in the flow rates of the filters but negatively affected turbidity reduction. The filters still removed contaminants after total cumulative volumes of 1200 L (BSFZ, BSF, CCF and BF) and 300 L (SIPP) were filtered through the devices. The five evaluated filters have several advantages to the readily available technologies and the advantages include ease of construction, operation and maintenance. The filters are gravity driven and work independent of temperature. These HWTS incorporate safe storages fitted with spigots to eliminate recontamination of water when it is drawn for use. The filters can produce enough drinking and cooking water for a family of six members due to their high flow rates. The BSFZ, BSF, SIPP, CCF and BF may therefore be considered for treating contaminated water at household scale in places where water is taken directly from the source without treatment.

This diploma thesis is focused on sludge management of wastewater treatment plant. The research work contains an overview of the related legislation, outlines the problems of sludge treatment in the Czech Republic and also deals with technologies and technical solutions that are related to the processing and treatment of sewage sludge for various size categories of wastewater treatment plants. The second part is devoted to the technical and economic assessment of wastewater treatment plants in the category from 500 EO to 2 000 EO. The assessment is based on real data provided by WWTP operators and focuses on electricity consumption, investment costs and operating costs. Part of the diploma thesis is also determining the rentability of drainage equipment, and studying the convenience of using mobile or stationary drainage equipment.

This master thesis deals with the design of a wastewater treatment plant, which will be controlled by a PLC. The theoretical part describes the types of wastewater and sewage systems that are important in the design of wastewater treatment plants. The thesis also describes programmable logic controllers, theirs programming languages, SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) systems and automation.The thesis also deals with theoretical description of wastewater treatment plants, their functions and security. Next part describes the design of the wastewater treatment plant. The last part of the thesis describes implementation of the wastewater treatment plant controlled by a PLC.