This thesis explores roles of 2-oxoglutarate-dependent (2OG) oxygenases as interfaces that modulate steps in the flow of genetic information in cells in response to oxygen availability. Chapter 1 introduces mechanistic, biochemical and physiological aspects of major subfamilies of 2OG oxygenases, and their established regulatory roles in cells. In addition, structural and functional aspects of the ribosome and the translation process are discussed, with a focus on post-translational ribosome modifications. Chapter 2 investigates histone demethylases, which mediate chromatin-dependent regulation of gene expression and provides proof-of-concept for the rational, structure-guided design of small-molecules for selective inhibition of 2OG oxygenases with roles in cancer and inflammatory disease. Chapter 3 suggests regulatory roles for ten-eleven-translocation (TET)- catalysed DNA hydroxylation; calorimetric and thermal analyses reveal a duplex-stabilizing effect of the epigenetic 5-methylcytosine mark that is reversed upon conversion to 5- hydroxymethylcytosine (also termed the ‘sixth’ DNA base), raising the possibility that 2OG oxygenase catalysis might affect transcription via biophysical effects. Chapter 4 investigates fluoride release assays as a technology to enable medicinal chemistry studies on 2OG oxygenases with roles in fat mass regulation and obesity, cancer and inflammation; studies on the ALKBH5 enzyme show that it is a hypoxically upregulated 2OG oxygenase with a substrate preference distinct from previously characterized ALKBH enzymes. Chapter 5 identifies OGFOD1 as a 2OG-dependent ribosomal protein hydroxylase. OGFOD1 catalysis is conserved from yeast to humans. OGFOD1 catalyses formation of trans-3- hydroxy-L-proline in a highly conserved loop of ribosomal protein S23 proximal to the ribosomal decoding centre, possibly to modulate the interactions of eukaryotic ribosomes with tRNA, mRNA and translation factors in an oxygen-dependent manner. OGFOD1 is the functionally most well-conserved protein-modifying 2OG oxygenase; likewise, ribosomal protein S23 hydroxylation is the most well-conserved post-translational ribosome modification in eukaryotes. Some cell lines require OGFOD1 for proliferation, and scaffolds for OGFOD1- selective inhibitors are developed for use as potential antiproliferative agents and probes for cellular function. Chapter 6 shows the development of assays to investigate whether OGFOD1 catalysis affects ribosome assembly and function, including processivity, accuracy of initiation, elongation and termination, in yeast and mammalian cell lines. Chapter 7 concludes that ribosome hydroxylation might present an additional layer of regulatory complexity by which 2OG oxygenases could enable cells to respond to fluctuating oxygen levels.

Iminosugars, carbohydrate analogues in which nitrogen replaces the endocyclic oxygen, have attracted much interest due to their biological activity. Iminosugars inhibit carbohydrate-processing enzymes, thereby affecting many biological processes. Several iminosugars are licensed drugs, with many more compounds undergoing clinical trials. The main subject of this thesis is the synthesis and evaluation of novel iminosugars, particularly the effects of structural modifications on the biological activity of these compounds. Chapter 1 describes the role of carbohydrate-processing enzymes in the body, and explores the therapeutic applications of iminosugars that arise from their activity against these enzymes. Examples of substituted iminosugars are reviewed, and the effects of substituents on enzyme inhibition are described. Chapter 2 concerns methyl-branched swainsonine derivatives. Swainsonine has shown potential as a cancer treatment through its inhibition of α-mannosidase. The synthesis of (6R)- and (6S)-C-methyl D-swainsonine is described; both compounds were potent and selective α-mannosidase inhibitors (IC₅₀ 3.8 μM, 14 μM). Although less active than the parent compound, their selectivity for Golgi mannosidase over lysosomal mannosidase may be more important than the absolute value against the model enzyme. Chapter 3 describes the synthesis of a 2-C-methyl L-fucose derivative. A diastereoselective Kiliani reaction allowed the formation of a single lactone bearing a new quaternary centre. The utility of this intermediate in accessing di-branched iminosugars was explored; however, attempts to introduce nitrogen to the lactone lacked the necessary stereoselectivity. Chapter 4 relates to the synthesis of pyrrolidine iminosugars, specifically methyl amides. Two enantiomeric dihydroxyproline amides were synthesised; the D-proline derivative was a potent β-N-acetylhexosaminidase inhibitor (IC₅₀ values of up to 3.6 μM), but the L-enantiomer was completely inactive. Inhibition of N-acetylhexosaminidases is relevant to the treatment of cancer and lysosomal storage diseases, and this work contributed to a wider project investigating the effects of altered stereochemistry on the biological activity of pyrrolidine amides.

Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) is the master regulator of genes involved in adaptation to hypoxia. The stability and transcriptional activity of HIF are regulated by post-translational hydroxylations: prolyl hydroxylation by the prolyl hydroxylase domain-containing enzymes PHD1 – 3 earmarks HIF for proteasomal degradation, whilst asparaginyl hydroxylation by factor inhibiting HIF (FIH) blocks the interaction of HIF with the transcriptional coactivators p300/CBP. The PHDs and FIH hydroxylate HIF directly from molecular oxygen and are therefore oxygen sensors. Recent literature shows that FIH also hydroxylates a number of proteins containing an ankyrin-repeat domain (ARD). Together with reports suggesting that the PHDs are involved in HIF-independent pathways, this suggests that the HIF hydroxylases may have a wide range of non-HIF targets. This thesis describes my investigations into novel substrates of the HIF hydroxylases. This work has characterized the FIH-dependent hydroxylation of the ARD-containing protein Notch1, and defined a consensus sequence for hydroxylation that corresponds to the ankyrin-repeat consensus. Using this consensus potential sites of hydroxylation in a novel ARD FIH substrate, myosin phosphatase targeting subunit 1 (MYPT1), were identified then subsequently confirmed and characterized. Notch1 competes with HIF for FIH hydroxylation. My experiments show that this occurs because Notch1 is a more efficient substrate than HIF, whilst studies on MYPT1 and other proteins indicate that competitive inhibition of FIH may be a general property of ARDs. There are more than 300 ARD proteins in the human genome, and this thesis demonstrates that FIH may hydroxylate a significant percentage of these. In addition to the analysis of ARD hydroxylation a proteomic investigation into novel PHD3 substrates has identified two candidate proteins, suggesting that the PHDs may also have multiple targets. These results have important implications for oxygen sensing, and indicate that post-translational hydroxylation is likely to be a widespread modification in cell biology.

Topoisomerase 2α (Topo2α) is an essential protein with DNA decatenating enzymatic properties, indispensable for chromosome decatenation and segregation. It is a target for a plethora of antitumour drugs and Topo2α protein levels have been associated with the success of treatment, but also drug resistance and secondary malignancies. Although unique in its ability to resolve catenated chromosomes, the role of Topo2α in other steps of DNA metabolism, such as DNA replication elongation and termination have been elusive. A thorough understanding of the role of Topo2α in the cell will not only allow for increased insight into the mechanisms it is involved in, but it will also shed light on proteins and pathways that can act as back-up in its absence, and therefore hopefully expand the basis on which to improve treatment options. Through a synthetic lethal interaction (SLI) screen with an siRNA library targeting 200 DNA repair and signalling genes, Topo2α emerged as being synthetic lethal to Werner protein (WRN), a RecQ helicase involved in maintaining genome integrity mainly in S phase, and the loss of which leads to Werner Syndrome (WS), a segmental progeroid syndrome. The screen was performed in WRN deficient cells, with the initial aim to find proteins that act to buffer against loss of viability, which is the central idea in the concept of synthetic lethality in the absence of WRN. The screen revealed an SLI between WRN and Topo2α and although we were unable to fully validate this, it spurred the question of Topo2α’s role in DNA replication. The findings in this thesis suggest that Topo2α is not required for DNA elongation and timely completion of S phase, and that simultaneous loss of the closely related isoform Topo2β does not affect replication, suggesting that these proteins do not act in parallel back-up pathways during replication. Interestingly, cells accumulate in the polyploid fraction after both depletion and inhibition of Topo2α, albeit with different kinetics. The mechanistic basis of this phenotype remains to be understood through further research, but it is highly interesting as aneuplidity and polyploidy are implicated in the initial stages of tumour development.

In this thesis, two algorithms are introduced for use in ultrasound elastography. Ultrasound elastography is a technique developed in the last 20 years by which anomalous regions in soft tissue are located and diagnosed without the need for biopsy. Due to this, the relativity cheap cost of ultrasound imaging and the high level of accuracy in the methods, ultrasound elastography methods have shown great potential for the diagnosis of cancer in soft tissues. The algorithms introduced in this thesis represent an advance in this field. The first algorithm is a two-step iteration procedure consisting of two minimization problems - displacement estimation and elastic parameter calculation that allow for diagnosis of any anomalous regions within soft tissue. The algorithm represents an improvement on existing methods in several ways. A weighting factor is introduced for each different point in the tissue dependent on the confidence in the accuracy of the data at that point, an exponential substitution is made for the elasticity modulus, an adjoint method is used for efficient calculation of the gradient vector and a total variation regularization technique is used. Most importantly, an adaptive mesh refinement strategy is introduced that allows highly efficient calculation of the elasticity distribution of the tissue though using a number of degrees of freedom several orders lower than methods that use a uniform mesh refinement strategy. Results are presented that show the algorithm is robust even in the presence of significant noise and that it can locate a tumour of 4mm in diameter within a 5cm square region of tissue. Also, the algorithm is extended into 3 dimensions and results are presented that show that it can calculate a 3 dimensional elasticity distribution efficiently. This extension into 3-d is a significant advance in the field. The second algorithm is a one-step algorithm that seeks to combine the two problems of elasticity distribution and displacement calculation into one. As in the two-step algorithm, a weighting factor, exponential substitution for the elasticity parameter, adjoint method for calculation of the gradient vector, total variation regularization and adaptive mesh refinement strategy are incorporated. Results are presented that show that this original approach can locate tumours of varying sizes and shapes in the presence of varying levels of added artificial noise and that it can determine the presence of a tumour in images taken from breast tissue in vivo.

The Lon protease is a mitochondrial matrix quality-control protease belonging to the family of AAA+ proteins (ATPases associated with many cellular activities). We had previously found Lon to be upregulated in lung tumours with a non-angiogenic phenotype in a microarray study comparing these to conventional angiogenic tumours. In this project I set out to investigate whether Lon had any role in modulating the hypoxic response of tumour cells. Using a novel monoclonal antibody against Lon, I found that upregulation of Lon was present in breast and lung tumours and that higher levels of Lon are correlated with shorter overall survival in breast cancer patients. Targeting Lon with siRNA and shRNA in tumour cell lines reduced the normoxic and hypoxic stabilisation of HIF-α subunits. This is mediated through a mechanism independent of the activity of HIF-prolyl hydroxylases and independent of any changes in mitochondrial transcription. I found that the pre-imported form of Lon could bind and chaperone VHL in the cytoplasm potentially modulating VHL activity. In cell lines and human tumours, I observed that the proline-hydroxylated form of HIF-1α is induced by hypoxia and the hydroxylated form of HIF-1α is associated with shorter overall survival in breast cancer patients. This observation supports the notion that higher levels of Lon is associated with poor survival by downregulating VHL leading to higher levels of hydroxylated HIF. Finally I show that targeting Lon in cell lines is able to inhibit growth in a cell-line dependent fashion and partially reverses the Warburg effect, increasing oxygen consumption and reducing lactate production. In conclusion, I have demonstrated the broad therapeutic potential of targeting the Lon protease in tumours and highlighted a mechanism of post-hydroxylation HIF-regulation that has not been previously recognised in VHL competent tumours.

DNA is wrapped around proteins called histones, whose modification regulates numerous cellular processes. Therefore it is not surprising that mutations in the genes that modify the histones are frequently associated with human cancer. For example, mutations in SETD2, encoding the sole enzyme that catalyses histone H3 lysine 36 trimethylation (H3K36me3), occur frequently in multiple cancer types. This identifies H3K36me3 loss as an important event in cancer development, and also as a potential therapeutic target. This thesis investigates the following questions: (1) how does the loss of H3K36me3 contribute to cancer development; and (2) what therapy can be used to kill cancers that have already lost H3K36me3. To answer the first question, this thesis shows that H3K36me3 facilitates the accurate repair of DNA double-stranded breaks (DSBs) by homologous recombination (HR). H3K36me3 promotes HR by recruiting CtIP to the site of DSBs to carry out resection, allowing the binding of HR proteins (such as RPA and RAD51) to the damage sites. Thus it is proposed that error-free HR repair within H3K36me3-decorated transcriptionally active genomic regions suppresses genetic mutations which could promote tumourigenesis. To answer the second question, this thesis reveals a clinically relevant synthetic lethal interaction between H3K36me3 loss and WEE1 inhibition. WEE1 inhibition selectively kills H3K36me3-deficient cells by inhibiting DNA replication, and subsequent fork stalling results in MUS81 endonuclease-dependent DNA damage and cell death. The mechanism is found to be synergistic depletion of RRM2 (ribonucleotide reductase small subunit), the enzyme that generates deoxyribonucleotides (dNTPs). This work reveals two pathways that regulate RRM2: one involves transcriptional activation of RRM2 by H3K36me3, and the other involves RRM2 degradation regulated by Cyclin-Dependent Kinase, CDK1 (which is controlled by WEE1, CHK1 and ATR). Based on this mechanism, the synthetic lethal interaction is expanded, from between two genes, to between two pathways. Supported by in vivo experiments, the study suggests that patients with cancers that have lost H3K36me3 could benefit from treatment with the inhibitors of WEE1, CHK1 or ATR.

9 ABSTRACT Tatiana Labudová: Genetic changes in neuroectodermal tumours detected by molecular biological methods. Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Anthropology and Human Genetics Thesis, 75 pages,8 supplements, 2012 This thesis is concerned to neuroectodermal tumours that make a major group of infant tumour diseases. Genetic material gained from patients with neuroectodermal tumours was examined using comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) and interphasic fluorescence in situ hybridization (I-FISH). The aim of this Thesis is to prove chromosomal changes and to create the whole genetic profile. According to these profiles can be determined tumourgenetic cascade or specific genetic changes that lead to malignant tumours. In some cases (f.e. neuroblastoms) the genetic profile helps us to determine a subtype of disease and it's biological behaviour. Keywords: tumour diseases, neuroblastoma, CNS tumours, pheochromocytoma, Ewing's sarcoma, neuroectodermal tumour, comparative genomic hybridization, interphase fluorescence in situ hybridization

La "chirurgie éveillée du cerveau" consiste à retirer des tumeurs cérébrales infiltrantes (gliomes de bas grade, GIBG) à progression lente chez un patient éveillé. Une cartographie anatomo-fonctionnelle du cerveau est réalisée par stimulation électrique directe (SED) des zones proches de la tumeur afin de discriminer les aires cérébrales fonctionnelles de celles qui ne le sont plus. Les effets inhibiteurs de la stimulation sont mis en évidence par les tests neuropsychologiques réalisés par le patient lors de la chirurgie. Cependant, la SED est paramétrée de manière totalement empirique bien qu’utilisée de façon standardisée. De plus, si ses effets comportementaux sont mis en avant, ses effets électrophysiologiques restent plus méconnus. La conservation de la relation entre électrophysiologie (potentiel évoqué, PE) et comportement (fonction) est cruciale lors de chirurgies des GIBG : l’analyse des PE en temps réel permettrait une identification de ces relations au cours même de la chirurgie.Pour cela, nous avons réalisé des enregistrements peropératoires de l’activité électro-corticographique (ECoG) du cortex (CPP, n° ID-RCB : 2015-A00056-43). L’étude de ces enregistrements a permis de mesurer les effets electrophysiologiques de la SED corticale et sous-corticale, en évaluant la réponse du cerveau à la stimulation au travers des PE. Une chaine d'acquisition spécifique à la mesure de l'ECoG a été développée afin de pouvoir à terme mesurer et visualiser les PE en temps réel. De plus, un algorithme de post-traitement a été implémenté afin de réduire la contamination du signal par l’artefact de stimulation.Mieux comprendre les mécanismes sous-jacents à la SED, notamment au travers de la mesure des réponses électrophysiologiques, doit permettre de proposer des protocoles peropératoires plus objectifs afin d'améliorer la planification chirurgicale et la qualité de vie des patients. / The ‘Awake brain surgery’ consists in removing some slow-growing infiltrative brain tumor (low grade glioma, LGG) in a patient, to delay its development while preserving the functions. An anatomo-functional mapping of the brain is performed by electrically stimulating brain areas near the tumor to discriminate functional versus nonfunctional areas. The inhibitory effects of this direct electrical stimulation (DES) are evidenced by the neuropsychological tests undergone by the patient during the tumor resection. However, the DES parameters are empirically set even though its use is standardised. Moreover, even if its behavioural effects are well known, its electrophysiological effects have been partially depicted.Preserving the relationship between electrophysiology (evoked potential, EP) and behaviour (function) is crucial in LGG surgery.Intra-operative electrocorticographic recordings (ECoG) of the brain activity were thus performed (CPP, n° ID-RCB : 2015-A00056-43). The electrophysiological effects of cortical and subcortical DES on brain activity have been highlighted, by assessing the response of the brain to the stimulation through EP recordings analysis. A new acquisition set-up has also been specifically developed for ECoG recordings in order to measure and eventually visualise the EP in real-time. Furthermore, a post-processing algorithm has been implemented to reduce the signal disturbances induced by the stimulation artefact.A better understanding of the underlying DES mechanisms, in particular through the measurement of electrophysiological responses, should enable designing more perfected protocols in order to improve the surgical planning, and quality of life of the patients.

Η νεοπλασία των όρχεων, αν και σχετικά αποτελεί μια σπάνια μορφή νεοπλασίας (1- 2% όλων των νεοπλασμάτων του άνδρα), είναι ο πιο συχνός όγκος στις ηλικίες 20-40 ετών, αποτελώντας την τρίτη κατά σειρά αιτία θανάτου στις ηλικίες αυτές. Περίπου το 95% των όγκων όρχεων προέρχεται από τα βλαστικά κύτταρα. Η αλληλεπίδραση των κυττάρων με άλλα κύτταρα ή με συστατικά του εξωκυττάριου χώρου, καθώς και η μετακίνηση στο ενδοθήλιο των αρτηριών και στο εξωφλεβικό ιστό, είναι εξαρτημένη από την ενεργότητα των μορίων προσκόλλησης όπως οι ιντεγκρίνες, οι σελεκτίνες και μέλη της υπεροικογένειας των ανοσοσφαιρινών, καντχερίνες και ο CD44. Ο CD44 είναι μια γλυκοπρωτεΐνη και αποτελεί τον κύριο υποδοχέα του ΗA. Η ισομορφή που δεν περιέχει ενδιάμεσα εξώνια ονομάζεται CD44s, ενώ όλες οι υπόλοιπες ισομορφές προκύπτουν με εναλλακτικό μάτισμα δέκα διαφορετικών εξωνίων, παράγοντας πληθώρα διαφορετικών μορίων του CD44. Πληθώρα μελετών υποστηρίζει ότι ο μεμβρανικός υποδοχέας CD44 και το ΗΑ υπερεκφράζονται σε πολλές κακοήθειες και η αλληλεπίδρασή τους διεγείρει σειρά λειτουργιών στα κύτταρα του όγκου που συντελούν στην πρόοδο της νόσου. Η κύρια ισομορφή CD44s εκφράζεται ευρέως στους ιστούς και υπερεκφράζεται σε διάφορους τύπους καρκίνου όπου και συνυπάρχει με το ΗΑ, ενώ κάποιες ισομορφές όπως η CD44v5, CD44v6, παίζουν σημαντικό ρόλο στην επιθετικότητα μερικών τύπων καρκίνου. Η έκφραση του CD44 έχει μελετηθεί μερικώς στους όγκους όρχεων και έχουν δημοσιευθεί αντικρουόμενα ευρήματα, ενώ δεν υπάρχουν διαθέσιμα στοιχεία για την έκφραση των ενζύμων που συνθέτουν το ΗΑ. Στόχος της μεταπτυχιακής εργασίας ήταν να διερευνηθεί η έκφραση των ισομορφών του CD44 και των συνθασών του ΗΑ σε τρεις κυτταρικές σειρές όγκων όρχεων (Σεμίνωμα, Εμβρυϊκό καρκίνωμα, Τερατοκαρκίνωμα). Η μελέτη του υποδοχέα CD44 πραγματοποιήθηκε με RT-PCR και ανοσοαποτύπωση. Σε επίπεδο mRNA βρέθηκε πως η κύρια ισομορφή του CD44 που εκφράζεται στο σεμίνωμα καθώς και σε μη- σεμινωματώδεις όγκους είναι η ισομορφή CD44s. Ακόμη στην κυτταρική σειρά σεμινώματος όρχεων εκφράζονται και άλλες ισομορφές, κυρίως όμως εκφράζονται οι ισομορφές CD44v7-v10, CD44v8-v10, CD44v9-v10 και CD44v10. Στις κυτταρικές σειρές μη σεμινωματωδών όγκων (εμβρυϊκό καρκίνωμα και τερατοκαρκίνωμα) εκτός της CD44s ισομορφής που είναι η κυρίαρχη ισομορφή εκφράζονται και κάποιες άλλες ισομορφές του CD44. Στο εμβρυϊκό καρκίνωμα εκφράζονται οι ισομορφές CD44v5,v8, CD44v9-v10 και CD44v10, ενώ στο τερατοκαρκίνωμα παρατηρείται η έκφραση κυρίως της CD44v5,v8, ενώ εκφράζονται και οι CD44v5,v9, CD44v5, CD44v8-v10, CD44v9-v10 και η CD44v10. Η μελέτη του CD44 σε επίπεδο πρωτεΐνης με το αντίσωμα Hermes-3 κατέδειξε πως η κύρια ισομορφή που εκφράζεται στην κυτταρική σειρά σεμινώματος είναι η CD44s με μοριακό βάρος~90kDa. Ακόμα φάνηκε πως υπάρχει έκφραση και κάποιων ισομορφών και θραυσμάτων του CD44 με μικρότερο μοριακό μέγεθος. Αντίθετα στις κυτταρικές σειρές εμβρυϊκού καρκίνωματος και τερατοκαρκινώματος παρατηρήθηκε η έκφραση μόνο της CD44s ισομορφής. Αντίθετα με την υψηλή έκφραση του CD44s στην κυτταρική σειρά σεμινώματος, παρατηρήθηκε μικρή έκφραση του CD44s στην κυτταρική σειρά εμβρυϊκού καρκινώματος και μια ελάχιστη έκφραση στην κυτταρική σειρά του τερατοκαρκινώματος. Η μελέτη του υποδοχέα CD44 σε επίπεδο ιστού έδειξε ότι η πρωτεΐνη του CD44 εκφράζεται στα κύτταρα του όγκου. Η σηματοδοτική δράση του ΗΑ στα καρκινικά κύτταρα μέσω του υποδοχέα CD44 έχει προταθεί ως βασικό βήμα για την ανάπτυξη και πρόοδο της νόσου. Οι συνθάσες του HA είναι τα ένζυμα που βιοσυνθέτουν το ΗΑ και διακρίνονται σε τρεις ισομορφές τις HAS- 1, HAS-2, HAS-3α, και HAS-3β. Στα πλαίσια της μεταπτυχιακής διατριβής βρέθηκε πως η κυτταρική σειρά σεμινώματος εκφράζει μόνο την ισομορφή HAS-3α, ενώ οι κυτταρικές σειρές εμβρυϊκού καρκινώματος και τερατοκαρκινώματος εμφανίζουν ισχυρή έκφραση της ισομορφής HAS-3α και μικρή έκφραση της HAS-2. / Testicular tumors are present in men aged 15-35 years with increasing incidence in the last 40 years. Approximately 95% of these tumors arise from germ cells. The interaction of cells with other cells or with components of the extracellular matrix (ECM), as well as their locomotion on blood vessel endothelium and extravascular tissue, are substantially dependent on the activity of adhesion molecules such as integrins, selectins, members of the immunoglobulin superfamily, addressins, cadherins, and CD44. CD44 is a glycoprotein and represents the major receptor for HA. The isoform with no variant exons is named CD44s, whereas the other isoforms arise from alternative splicing of the 10 variant exons of the CD44 mRNA, producing a huge variety of diverse CD44 molecules. A lot of studies supports that the membrane receptor CD44 and HA are overexpressed in several malignancies and their interaction trigger fuctions in tumour cells, which conduce to the disease progression. The major isoform is the CD44s which is expressed widely in tissues, whereas is overexpressed in several types of tumours ,coexisting with HA. The expression of CD44 has been partly studied in testicular tumours but controversial findings have been published, whereas no data about the enzymes which synthesize HA are available. The aim of this thesis was to examine the expression of CD44 isoforms and HA synthases in three cell lines (seminoma, embryonic carcinoma, teratocarcinoma). The study of CD44 was conducted by RT-PCR analysis and western blotting. It was found that in mRNA level, the major isoform that is expressed in seminoma and nonseminomas is the CD44s isoform. Moreover, in seminoma cell line, other isoforms are also expressed, namely CD44v7-v10, CD44v8-v10, CD44v9-v10 and CD44v10 isoforms. In nonseminomas cell lines CD44s is expressed as the major isoform , but also other isoforms are expressed. CD44v5,v8, CD44v9-v10 and CD44v10 isoforms are expressed in embryonic carcinoma , whereas in teratocarcinoma the expression mainly of the CD44v5,v8 isoform is observed, together with CD44v5,v9, CD44v5, CD44v8-v10, CD44v9-v10 and CD44v10 isoforms. The study of CD44 in protein level conducted by western blotting using the monoclonal antibody Hermes-3. It was shown that the major isoform expressed in seminoma cell line is CD44s with a molecular mass approximately 90kDa. Moreover it was shown that other CD44 isoforms and CD44 fragments with smaller molecular mass are expressed. On the other hand, in embryonic carcinoma and teratocarcinoma cell lines, the expression only of CD44s isoform was observed. The study of CD44 in tissue level revealed that CD44protein is expressed in tumour cells. The signaling effect of HA in tumor cells through CD44 has been stated to be a crucial step in the development and progression of the disease. The synthases of HA are the enzymes that produce HA and represent three distinct isoforms HAS-1, HAS-2, HAS-3a, and HAS-3b. The findings of this study revealed that seminoma cell line express only HAS-3a isoform, whereas embryonic carcinoma and teratocarcinoma cell lines showed high expression of HAS-3a isoform and low expression of HAS-2 isoform.