L’apprentissage donne souvent l’impression d’être un processus long et difficile, notamment quand il fait penser à l’école et à la difficulté que tout le monde a déjà ressentie pour maintenir sa motivation pour telle ou telle matière. Pourtant, il y a des choses que l’on apprend sans enseignement. Par exemple, apprendre à parler sa langue maternelle se fait naturellement sans effort conscient. Les connaissances primaires et secondaires sont une façon de distinguer ce qui est facile ou difficile à apprendre. Les connaissances primaires sont celles pour lesquelles nos mécanismes cognitifs auraient évolué, permettant une acquisition sans effort, intuitive et rapide alors que les connaissances secondaires sont apparues récemment : ce sont celles pour lesquelles nous n’aurions pas eu le temps d’évoluer et dont l’acquisition serait longue et coûteuse. Les écoles se focalisent essentiellement sur ce deuxième type de connaissances. Leur défi est de permettre ces apprentissages longs et coûteux, et, pour cela, de maintenir la motivation des apprenants. Une piste de recherche s’appuie sur le fait que les connaissances secondaires sont construites sur la base des connaissances primaires. En effet, personne n’est capable d’enseigner « initialement » une langue maternelle alors que l’apprentissage des langues étrangères s’appuie sur cette première langue. Le présent travail explore le caractère motivant et peu coûteux des connaissances primaires pour faciliter l’apprentissage de la logique en tant que connaissance secondaire. En modifiant la présentation de problèmes logiques avec des habillages liés aux connaissances primaires (e.g., nourriture et caractéristiques d’animaux) ou secondaires (e.g., règles de grammaire, mathématiques), huit premières expériences ont permis de mettre en avant les effets positifs des connaissances primaires que le contenu soit familier ou non. Les résultats montrent que les connaissances primaires favorisent la performance, l’investissement émotionnel, la confiance dans les réponses et diminuent la charge cognitive perçue. Quant aux connaissances secondaires, elles semblent miner la motivation des participants et générer une sensation de conflit parasite. De plus, présenter des problèmes avec un habillage de connaissances primaires en premier permettrait de réduire les effets délétères des connaissances secondaires présentées ensuite et aurait un impact positif global. Trois autres expériences ont alors mis ces résultats à l’épreuve de tâches d’apprentissage afin de proposer une approche qui favorise l’engagement des apprenants et leur apprentissage. Ces découvertes tendent à montrer que les recherches sur l’apprentissage bénéficieraient à prendre en considération les connaissances primaires plutôt que de les négliger car elles sont « déjà apprises ». / Learning often gives the impression of being a long and difficult process, especially when it reminds us of school and the difficulty that everyone has already experienced in maintaining motivation for a particular subject. Yet there are things we learn without teaching. For example, learning to speak one’s mother tongue is a natural process without conscious effort. Primary and secondary knowledge is a way of distinguishing what is easy or difficult to learn. Primary knowledge is the knowledge for which our cognitive mechanisms have evolved, allowing effortless, intuitive and rapid acquisition, whereas secondary knowledge has recently emerged: it is the knowledge for which we would not have had time to evolve and for which acquisition would be long and costly. Schools focus mainly on this second type of knowledge. Their challenge is to enable this lengthy and costly learning, and to do so, to maintain the motivation of learners. A research path is based on the fact that secondary knowledge is built on the basis of primary knowledge. Indeed, no one is able to teach a mother tongue “initially”, whereas foreign language learning is based on that first language. This work explores the motivational and inexpensive nature of primary knowledge to facilitate the learning of logic as secondary knowledge. By varying the content of logical problems with primary (e.g., food and animals’ features) or secondary knowledge (e.g., grammar rules, mathematics), the first eight experiments highlighted the positive effects of primary knowledge, whether or not the content was familiar. The results showed that primary knowledge promoted performance, emotional investment, confidence in responses and decreased perceived cognitive load. Secondary knowledge seemed to undermine participants’ motivation and generated a feeling of parasitic conflict. In addition, presenting primary knowledge content first reduced the deleterious effects of secondary knowledge presented second and would have an overall positive impact. Three other experiments then tested these results on learning tasks in order to propose an approach that fosters learners’ engagement and learning. These findings tend to show that research about learning would benefit from taking primary knowledge into account rather than neglecting it because it is “already learned”.

O objetivo do presente trabalho é descrever o perfil epidemiológico e molecular dos vírus Parainfluenza em crianças menores de 5 ano de idade, com infecção das vias respiratórias. Por tanto, aspirados de nasofaringe de 742 crianças foram examinadas para os Vírus Parainfluenza Humano(HPIV1, HPIV2 e HPIV3), hRSV, hMPV e IA e IB pela técnica de RT-PCR, durante o ano de 2007. Ao todo foram identificados 52(7%) Parainfluenza vírus, sendo 9(17,3%) HPIV1, 8(15,4%) HPIV2 e 35(67,3%) HPIV3. Destas, 12 (23%) foram casos de coinfecções, sendo 3 (25%) de HPIV3 com VRS, 3 (25%) com MPV e 3 (25%) com HPIV1 e 1(8,33%) com HPIV2; além de 1(8,33%) do HPIV1 com hVSR; e 1(8,33%) de HPIV2 com o hMPV. Com relação ao setor de atendimento, dos 52 pacientes com HPIV, 8(5%) dos casos foram atendidos no PA; 38(8,4%) na ENF; 6(18,2%) na UTI. Obtivemos, no estudo, 21(5,3%) crianças do sexo masculino com infecção por HPIV e 31(9%) de sexo feminino. Quanto a idade, as crianças entre 1 a 23 meses foram as mais frequentemente infectadas. Com relação ao diagnóstico clínico tivemos 19(36,5%) casos com bronquiolites, 13(25%) casos com pneumonia, 7(13,4%) com broncopneumonia, 2(3,9%) de casos de dispnéia e 2(3,9%) de IVAS, além de 9(17,3%) sem informação da sintomatologia. A sazonalidade do HPIV foi marcada pela circulação do HPIV3 durante o ano inteiro, com maior incidência em outubro(primavera). O HPIV 1 e 2 se alternaram durante o ano, onde o HPIV1 circulou no primeiro semestre com maior incidência no mês de abril e maio e o HPIV2 circulou no segundo semestre com maior incidência em outubro, coincidindo com o HPIV3. O Estudo filogenético dos HPIV1 demonstrou 9 mutações nucleotídicas, sendo que 4 são características das amostras brasileiras. Entretanto, quando feito a transdução para aminoácido, apenas uma mutação foi não silenciosa, onde observamos a mudança de glicina, nas amostras do Genbank, para argenina, nas amostras brasileiras, deixando-as em um clado único na topologia da árvore obtida. O HPIV3 apresentou 4 subgrupos distintos durante o ano e suas mutações tanto nucleotídicas quanto de aminoácidos foram todas silenciosas. Em conclusão o vírus parainfluenza representaram a 3ª maior causa de infecção das vias respiratórias inferiores, precedido pelo vírus respiratório Sincicial e o Metapneumovirus. / The goal of the present work was to characterize the epidemiologic and molecular profile of the parainfluenza virus in children with less than 5 years of age and presenting respiratory tract infection. Human Parainfluenza (HPIV1, HPIV2, HPIV3), and hRSV, hMPV e IA e IB were evaluated in nasopharyngeal aspirate from 742 children by RT-PCR during the year of 2007. Human parainfluenza was identified in 52(7%) of the samples, which include 9(17,3%) HPIV1, 8(15,4%) HPIV2 and 35(67,3%) HPIV3 17,3% (n=9). Among the 52 cases with parainfluenza, 12 (23%) presented coinfection with other viruses: 3 (25%) coinfection with HPIV3 and VRS, 3 (25%) MPV , 3 (25%) HPIV1 , 1(8,33%) HPIV2 . In addition, it was observed 1(8,33%) of cases with HPIV1 and hVSR; and 1(8,33%) of cases with HPIV2 and hMPV. With respect to the clinical care of the 52 patients with HPIV, 8(5%) were treated at the ER? ; 38(8,4%) at the ENF and 6(18,2%) at the ICU. With respect to gender, a total of 21(5,3%) of the participants with HPIV infections were male and 31(9%) were female. The prevalent age range of participants with infections was 1-23 months of age. The following clinical parameters were observed: bronchiolitis 19(36,5%), pneumonia 13(25%), bronchopneumonia 7(13,4%), dyspnea 2(3,9%) and IVAS 2(3,9%). No clinical information was available for 9(17,3%) cases. HPIV3 infections were detected all year long with an incidence peak in October (Spring). HPIV1 and 2 infections were intercalated during the year. HPIV1 was detected during the first semester with peaks of incidence in April and May whereas HPIV2 was detected during the second semester with peaks of incidence in October, coexisting with HPIV3. HPIV1phylogenetic studies revealed 9 genetic mutations. 4 out of the 9 mutations are exclusively found in the brazilian population. However, only one of these 9 mutations is non-silent and causes a glycine to argenine substitution. When compared to other brazilian sequences in the GenBank, this observation revealed um clado único na topologia da árvore obtida. HPIV3 genotyping included 4 distinct groups detected all year long. All mutations observed in HPIV3 were silent. In conclusion, the parainfluenza virus represent the 3rd major cause of infection of the lower respiratory tract, following the sincicial respiratory virus and the Metapneumovirus.

O objetivo do presente trabalho é descrever o perfil epidemiológico e molecular dos vírus Parainfluenza em crianças menores de 5 ano de idade, com infecção das vias respiratórias. Por tanto, aspirados de nasofaringe de 742 crianças foram examinadas para os Vírus Parainfluenza Humano(HPIV1, HPIV2 e HPIV3), hRSV, hMPV e IA e IB pela técnica de RT-PCR, durante o ano de 2007. Ao todo foram identificados 52(7%) Parainfluenza vírus, sendo 9(17,3%) HPIV1, 8(15,4%) HPIV2 e 35(67,3%) HPIV3. Destas, 12 (23%) foram casos de coinfecções, sendo 3 (25%) de HPIV3 com VRS, 3 (25%) com MPV e 3 (25%) com HPIV1 e 1(8,33%) com HPIV2; além de 1(8,33%) do HPIV1 com hVSR; e 1(8,33%) de HPIV2 com o hMPV. Com relação ao setor de atendimento, dos 52 pacientes com HPIV, 8(5%) dos casos foram atendidos no PA; 38(8,4%) na ENF; 6(18,2%) na UTI. Obtivemos, no estudo, 21(5,3%) crianças do sexo masculino com infecção por HPIV e 31(9%) de sexo feminino. Quanto a idade, as crianças entre 1 a 23 meses foram as mais frequentemente infectadas. Com relação ao diagnóstico clínico tivemos 19(36,5%) casos com bronquiolites, 13(25%) casos com pneumonia, 7(13,4%) com broncopneumonia, 2(3,9%) de casos de dispnéia e 2(3,9%) de IVAS, além de 9(17,3%) sem informação da sintomatologia. A sazonalidade do HPIV foi marcada pela circulação do HPIV3 durante o ano inteiro, com maior incidência em outubro(primavera). O HPIV 1 e 2 se alternaram durante o ano, onde o HPIV1 circulou no primeiro semestre com maior incidência no mês de abril e maio e o HPIV2 circulou no segundo semestre com maior incidência em outubro, coincidindo com o HPIV3. O Estudo filogenético dos HPIV1 demonstrou 9 mutações nucleotídicas, sendo que 4 são características das amostras brasileiras. Entretanto, quando feito a transdução para aminoácido, apenas uma mutação foi não silenciosa, onde observamos a mudança de glicina, nas amostras do Genbank, para argenina, nas amostras brasileiras, deixando-as em um clado único na topologia da árvore obtida. O HPIV3 apresentou 4 subgrupos distintos durante o ano e suas mutações tanto nucleotídicas quanto de aminoácidos foram todas silenciosas. Em conclusão o vírus parainfluenza representaram a 3ª maior causa de infecção das vias respiratórias inferiores, precedido pelo vírus respiratório Sincicial e o Metapneumovirus. / The goal of the present work was to characterize the epidemiologic and molecular profile of the parainfluenza virus in children with less than 5 years of age and presenting respiratory tract infection. Human Parainfluenza (HPIV1, HPIV2, HPIV3), and hRSV, hMPV e IA e IB were evaluated in nasopharyngeal aspirate from 742 children by RT-PCR during the year of 2007. Human parainfluenza was identified in 52(7%) of the samples, which include 9(17,3%) HPIV1, 8(15,4%) HPIV2 and 35(67,3%) HPIV3 17,3% (n=9). Among the 52 cases with parainfluenza, 12 (23%) presented coinfection with other viruses: 3 (25%) coinfection with HPIV3 and VRS, 3 (25%) MPV , 3 (25%) HPIV1 , 1(8,33%) HPIV2 . In addition, it was observed 1(8,33%) of cases with HPIV1 and hVSR; and 1(8,33%) of cases with HPIV2 and hMPV. With respect to the clinical care of the 52 patients with HPIV, 8(5%) were treated at the ER? ; 38(8,4%) at the ENF and 6(18,2%) at the ICU. With respect to gender, a total of 21(5,3%) of the participants with HPIV infections were male and 31(9%) were female. The prevalent age range of participants with infections was 1-23 months of age. The following clinical parameters were observed: bronchiolitis 19(36,5%), pneumonia 13(25%), bronchopneumonia 7(13,4%), dyspnea 2(3,9%) and IVAS 2(3,9%). No clinical information was available for 9(17,3%) cases. HPIV3 infections were detected all year long with an incidence peak in October (Spring). HPIV1 and 2 infections were intercalated during the year. HPIV1 was detected during the first semester with peaks of incidence in April and May whereas HPIV2 was detected during the second semester with peaks of incidence in October, coexisting with HPIV3. HPIV1phylogenetic studies revealed 9 genetic mutations. 4 out of the 9 mutations are exclusively found in the brazilian population. However, only one of these 9 mutations is non-silent and causes a glycine to argenine substitution. When compared to other brazilian sequences in the GenBank, this observation revealed um clado único na topologia da árvore obtida. HPIV3 genotyping included 4 distinct groups detected all year long. All mutations observed in HPIV3 were silent. In conclusion, the parainfluenza virus represent the 3rd major cause of infection of the lower respiratory tract, following the sincicial respiratory virus and the Metapneumovirus.