Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hong Kong, 1988.

M.A. / Over the years it has become clear that self-efficacy beliefs play a significant role in various domains of human functioning. According to Bandura (1986) individuals possess a self-system that enables them to exercise a measure of control over their thoughts, feelings and actions. This implies that the construct of self-efficacy has a pervasive influence on human functioning as it is seen to influence the way in which people feel, think and act. The literature has also shown that the physiological dimension of the self also stands to be affected by efficacy beliefs. One of the goal's of this research was to investigate the role of self-effiCacy as a mediating factor in the stress response, and how the various facets of self are affected by and affect an individual's perception of and response to a stressful situation. The stressful condition refers to the semester tests and how the students predicted their academic perfonnance under these conditions of stress. The design of the study was quantitative, and the sample comprised of 49 undergraduate psychology students. They completed a series of questionnaires a week before the first condition of stress, and their blood pressure was also measured at this time. Their blood pressure was also measured pretest and posttest at both conditions of stress. By means of a cluster analysis the group was divided into two homogeneous groups (high self-efficacy group, N=27) and (a low self-efficacy group, N=22) and this was followed by a detailed statistical analysis. The results revealed that the high self-efficacy group showed a bigger decline in diastolic and systolic blood pressure than the low self-efficacy group once the stressful condition had passed. Therefore the high self-efficacy group made a quicker physical recovery than the low self-efficacy group. It thus appears that the stress response of the more efficacious group may have been mediated by their beliefs of coping efficacy. Furthennore, the high self-efficacy group was more accurate in predicting their academic perfonnance than the low self-efficacy group. Even though the more efficacious group did not perfonn as well as the less efficacious group, they showed more optimism, and their prediction suggests that they are able to realistically appraise what they are capable of, since the test result was similar to what they had predicted. This ability to predict perfonnance is vital, as a major function of thought is to predict events and to exercise control over these events. This sense of control can be regarded as a self-confident view of an individual's capability to deal with certain life stressors (Schwarzer, 1997). Even though this study has highlighted some interesting trends relating to selfefficacy and the stress response, further research is needed to gain a more comprehensive understanding of this dynamic relationship.

Ph.D. / Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS) is a disabling and poorly understood multisystem illness. The illness is characterised by the principal symptom of persistent or intermittent unexplained fatigue, and has physical, psychological, social and community implications. Since CFS remains unexplained by a conventional biomedical diagnosis, confusion and controversy surround the illness. The confusing and controversial issues are the diagnosis, etiology, psychiatric states and the role of psychosocial factors. The overall aim of this study was to investigate the role of certain psychosocial factors, namely personality preferences or type, coping resources, locus of control and Type A behaviour pattern (TABP), in CFS. The total sample consisted of 70 subjects from four samples, namely the CFS patient sample (n = 21), coronary heart disease (CHD) patient sample (n = 14), depression patient sample (n = 15) and healthy sample (n = 20). The CHD patient, depression patient and healthy samples were included for comparative value. The broad hypothesis was that specific personality preferences or types as well as specific coping resources, locus of control and TABP would be characteristic of the CFS patient sample. The second hypothesis was that the CFS patient sample would significantly differ from the comparative samples on these psychosocial factors. Finally, it was hypothesised that the psychosocial factors would be correlated and hence have predictive value for the development and maintenance of CFS. On the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator' s (MBTI®), the CFS patient sample was found to have an over-representation of the introversion (61.9 %), intuition (52.4 %), feeling (66.7 %) and judging (76.2 %) preferences. An analysis of the type distribution and frequencies resulted in two whole types, namely ISFJ and INFJ. A normative interpretation of the Coping Resources Inventory° (CRI©) profile revealed that the CFS patient sample's coping resources in the various domains of cognitive, social, emotional, spiritual/philosophical, physical and total resources were below the mean. The results of the Locus of Control (LOC) Questionnaire revealed that the CFS patient sample primarily utilises an internal locus of control. However, the sample was also found to have a low state of self-regulation. In comparison to the healthy sample, the CFS patient sample had a significantly higher external locus of control. These findings lead to the hypothesis that during stressful situations (such as illness), the CFS patient sample's low state of self-regulation may result in them utilising an external locus of control. The CFS patient sample was found to have a higher mean TABP score than the mean TABP score of the total sample. This sample was also found to have a significantly higher mean TABP score than the healthy sample. Hence, it was concluded that the CFS patient sample exhibited a TABP. The Mann-Whitney U tests were utilised to determine the differences between the CFS patient sample and the various comparative samples. Various of the assessed psychosocial factors were found to differ significantly. However, most of the differences were found between the coping resources of the various samples. Correlations were drawn between the various assessed dimensions to determine whether the psychosocial factors have predictive value. On the MBTI®, a preference for sensing was associated with an external locus of control whereas a preference for judging was associated with a high TABP. A high TABP was associated with a high external locus of control. An external locus of control and TABP have been identified in previous studies on chronic illnesses as predisposing and maintenance factors. Hence, it was hypothesised that a preference for sensing and for judging respectively may be personality preferences that play a role in the development and maintenance of CFS. Subsequently, a high external locus of control and a high TABP respectively were also hypothesised to be predisposing and maintenance factors. The findings of the correlations also lead to the hypothesis that CFS patients with an extraversion and a thinking preference respectively have the ability to cope more effectively with their illness and may even recover quicker. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome patients with a high internal locus of control and a high state of self-regulation were also hypothesised to have a better overall ability to cope with their illness and may hence recover quicker. The final conclusion of the study's findings was that personality preferences and type, coping resources, locus of control and TABP interact within a complex matrix of socio-behavioural and biological factors in the development and maintenance of CFS. The value of the study is the identification of individuals at risk for the development of CFS and the psychosocial factors involved in the development and maintenance of CFS. In addition to this value, the MBTI ® results can be used to alert psychologists to the issues frequently associated with each MBTI® preference and can hence assist psychologists in the psychotherapeutic treatment of CFS patients. The results of the coping resources' deficits can also assist psychologists in the design and development of stress management programmes for CFS patients.

This study examined the effects of a stress inoculation training program on self-reported Type A behaviour pattern (TABP) and irrational beliefs in a sample of female medical, dental, and graduate students. Thirteen female medical students from the first, second, and third years of medical school, one female dental student from the first year of dental school, and 16 female graduate student volunteers were assigned to a 6-week stress inoculation group (SI; n = 14) or a 4-hour brief treatment group (BT; n = 16) in a repeated measures (pre, post, 11-week follow-up) quasi-experimental design. Participants completed the Rational Behavior Inventory, the Irrational Beliefs Test, the Type A Irrational Beliefs Test, and the Framingham Type A Scale (modified) in order to assess treatment effects. Price's (1982) cognitive social learning model proposes that TABP is elicited and maintained, in part, by specific beliefs and the fears and anxieties that they engender. Following this model, it was hypothesized that self-reported TABP, irrational beliefs, and Type A irrational beliefs would significantly decrease, and rational behaviour, or general rational thinking, would significantly increase, from pre- to post-test and these changes would be maintained at 11-week follow-up in the SI group, compared with the BT group. Repeated measures MANOVAs with pre-planned contrasts indicated that SI was effective in significantly reducing TABP from pre-to post-test. Both SI and BT were effective in significantly decreasing irrational beliefs and Type A irrational beliefs, as well as significantly increasing rational behaviour, or general rational thinking, from pre to post-test. These changes were maintained at follow-up and provide further insight into the relationship between TABP and irrational beliefs. This study provides partial support for Price's model and implicates the use of stress inoculation training in the treatment of TABP in female medical, dental, and graduate students. Implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

Many previous studies have examined the effects of goal attributes on subsequent behavior and performance, with consistently positive findings. However, there are few studies of goal processes, i.e., how reactions to goal origin and subsequent shifts in goal origin are exhibited in behavioral and subjective domains. The present research viewed reactions to goal origins (self-set or assigned) and to shifts in goal origin within a theory of personal control/psychological reactance. In addition, two individual difference constructs, locus of control and Type A Behavior Pattern, were measured to study their relationships with the dependent variables. A laboratory experiment was conducted to examine several hypotheses drawn from the psychological reactance literature concerning the joint effects of Initial Goal Origin and subsequent Shifted Goal Origin on subjective and behavioral responses. The subjective responses included task and performance satisfaction, goal acceptance, preferences for increasing employee self-control in the workplace, and preferred method of goal-setting. Behavioral measures included two different operational definitions of performance: quantity and goal attainment. The analyses revealed weak support for the hypotheses. The manipulation check composite revealed that the groups perceived the manipulations along the Initial Goal Origin dimension. There were statistically significant differences for goal acceptance, with the two shift groups displaying a crossover pattern between trial blocks. Simple interaction effect analyses conducted at each level of the Shifted Goal Origin factor revealed a statistically significant interaction between Initial Goal Origin and Trial Blocks for the Shift level only. Goal attainment scores revealed an apparently practical, yet statistically nonsignificant, effect for the three-way interaction of the manipulated factors over trial blocks. Moreover, the pattern of correlations between goals and performance reversed in the predicted direction over trial blocks for the two shift groups. However, there were no significant differences for the factors on the raw performance, satisfaction, or preference variables. The individual difference variables did not make a significant contribution to the prediction of the dependent variables after the effects of group membership were statistically controlled. The results are discussed in terms of the limitations of the method used, the weak support for the framework which guided the research, and implications for further research and implementation of goal-setting systems in organizations. / Ph. D.

This study used Hutchins’ T-F-A System as a conceptual framework to determine whether relationships exist among thinking-feeling-acting (T-F-A) behavior patterns, selected personality characteristics, coping strategies, and Type A/B behavior patterns. Variables were measured by the Hutchins Behavior Inventory or HBI (T-F-A patterns), the Adjective Check List (personality characteristics), the Ways of Coping Scales (coping strategies), and The Jenkins Activity Survey (Type A/B behavior). Subjects were 77 employed males who were members of service organizations in three small West Virginia towns. Subjects were classified into one of four T-F-A pattern groups on the basis of their HBI responses to a self-identified stressful work situation. Statistical strategies involved analyzing the variables with crosstabulation, analyses of variance and covariance, and multivariate analysis of variance. No- significant differential effect of the T-F-A classification on Type A/B behavior nor on any of the Type A/B subscales was discerned. Likewise, when controlling for the effects of selected personality factors and for the effects of coping strategies on Type A/B' behavior, no significant differences were observed across the four T-F-A pattern groups. Possible explanations for the absence of significant differences on these measures and the utility of the study were discussed. / Ed. D.

Although the Type A behavior pattern (TABP) is firmly established as a risk factor for coronary heart disease, it is neither well understood from a psychological perspective nor is it well understood in women. The present study attempts to describe the TABP in a population of working women. The description is based both on physiological and psychological measures. Ninety-four women were chosen from an original population of 157 women from the Roanoke and Blacksburg, Virginia areas. Each of these women completed the following psychometric instruments: Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS), Framingham Type A Scale, Novaco Anger Inventory, Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), and Perceived Work Environment (PWE). In addition, a blood sample was obtained from each person. The results revealed several personality differences between Type A and Type B women. Type As scored significantly higher on the three descriptive scales of the JAS than did TBs. The Type A women also had significantly higher total anger scores on the Novaco. A priori analysis of the types of items comprising the Novaco revealed that Type As were aroused to situations threatening them personally or their possessions while Type Bs were aroused by situations involving prejudices or injustices to others. Analysis of the BSRI showed Type As to have endorsed significantly more masculine characteristics and fewer feminine characteristics than did Type Bs. Type As also responded in a more socially desirable direction. Three of the PWE factors were found to be significantly different between Type A and Type B women. These factors were task characteristics, co-workers, and pressure to produce. These differences reflect perceptions of the environment. Significant interactions between Type A and the environment were seen in the administrative group indicating that certain environments influence the Type A's perceptions. The physiological assessment was not significant. However, there was a strong trend evident that approached significance. The model was able to correctly classify approximately 78% of the population and there were observable differences between the Type A. Results indicated that Type As displayed characteristics of a stressed population such as increased corticosteroids, ceruloplasmin, and proteins along with decreased levels of glucose, ascorbic acid, and oxidation- reduction protein. / Ph. D.

The validity of the Type A construct for children was empirically examined in the present study. The multi-trait, multi-method construct validation strategy was used to determine if the convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validities of the Type A construct would be supported. Constructs used as comparisons included anger, achievement-striving, and depression. Type of measures used included self-report, teacher-rating, and behavior observations. Subjects were 132 boys and girls in the fifth grade in elementary schools in Southwestern Virginia. Additional multiple regression analyses were employed to determine the best predictors of assessed levels of Type A behavior in children. Results indicated that different methods of measuring Type A behavior in children were significantly intercorrelated, thereby supporting the convergent validity of Type A in children. In addition, Type A was significantly and positively correlated with anger and achievement-striving, but more ambiguously related to depression. Type A did not achieve consistent discriminant validity from anger and achievement-striving, however, it was discriminantly valid when contrasted with depression. It was concluded the Type A behavior pattern for children did not achieve consistent construct validity. The implications of these findings for future research in the area of Type A behavior were discussed. / Ph. D.

The relationship of coronary-prone behavior, hostility, and defense style to atherosclerosis was examined. Subjects were 1,271 patients who underwent coronary angiography at Duke University Medical Center between 1974 and 1980. Type A behavior was assessed using both the Structured Interview and Jenkins Activity Survey. The Cook and Medley Hostility scale and Byrne's Repression-Sensitization scale, both subscales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, were employed to measure hostility and defense style. The results revealed no significant association between the disease end-points CADSEV, history of myocardial infarction, and history of angina pectoris and either the Structured Interview Type A, hostility, or repression-sensitization, Jenkins Activity Survey defined Type B's, however, were found to more frequently complain of angina. It was suggested future research employ longitudinal or process designs to focus on adaptive functioning from a transactional and developmental perspective which may serve to promote coronary resistance.

This study explored the relationship of Type A/B personality and leadership style to absenteeism. Absenteeism data were gathered for 243 male fire fighters and fire engineers. Each subject was administered the Jenkins Activity Scale to measure his Type A characteristics and the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire to measure his perception of his supervisor's leadership style. The results, though non-significant, revealed that: a) Type A's had less absenteeism than type B's; b) Subjects who perceived their supervisors as being low on consideration had less absenteeism than those who perceived their supervisors as being high on this dimension; c) Type A's absenteeism was low and Type B's was high when working under a leader perceived as low on structure. Finally, a weak but significant three-way interaction effect revealed that the highest amount of absenteeism occurred when Type B' s worked under supervisors who were high in consideration and low in structure. The least amount of absenteeism occurred when Type A's worked under supervisors who were high in structure and low in consideration.