Alors que les étapes du cycle du virus de la rage sont plutôt bien décrites, les interactions du virus avec la machinerie cellulaire restent mal connues. Le but de ce projet de thèse a été d’identifier et caractériser les voies de signalisation cellulaires impliquées dans le déroulement du cycle viral. Les kinases cellulaires jouent un rôle majeur dans la régulation de ces voies et certaines protéines rabiques ont déjà été décrites comme cibles de ces enzymes. Afin d’identifier les kinases impliquées dans le déroulement du cycle viral, nous avons réalisé un criblage d’une banque d’inhibiteur de kinases. L’analyse a été effectuée par cytométrie en flux dans des cellules infectées avec un virus rabique recombinant exprimant la protéine fluorescente GFP. Nous avons ainsi pu isoler deux inhibiteurs de kinases bloquant l’infection : La Tyrphostin 9,un inhibiteur de l’autophosphorylation du récepteur au PDGF (platelet-derived growth factor) (PDGF.R), et la Rottlerin, un inhibiteur de la PKCδ et découplant mitochondrial. Nous avons confirmé leur activité anti-virale dans différents types cellulaires (fibroblaste, glioblastome,neuroblastome et neurones primaires) et sur deux souches rabiques (CVS et SAD-B19). Par diverses approches expérimentales, nous avons identifié l’étape du cycle viral ciblée par chacun de ces inhibiteurs. Les résultats obtenus montrent que la Tyrphostin 9 perturbe une étape très précoce de l’infection : la fusion virale et plus particulièrement l’acidification endosomale. Nous avons observé que la Tyrphostin 9 provoquait également une désagrégation de l’appareil de Golgi. L’inhibition de l’acidification endosomale pourrait donc découler de cet effet. En présence de Rottlerin, le cycle viral est également inhibé au niveau d’une étape précoce : la réplication. A l’aide de siRNA, nous avons montré que cet effet de la Rottlerin est indépendant de la PKCδ. Les expériences réalisées avec un découplant mitochondrial bien caractérisé, le CCCP, tendent à montrer que l’effet de la Rottlerin est dû à sa fonction de découplant mitochondrial, qui induit une diminution du niveau d’ATP intracellulaire. Ce travail a permis d’identifier deux inhibiteurs de kinases inhibant des étapes précoces du cycle rabique. Les cibles cellulaires précisément impactées ainsi que l’effet sur le fonctionnement cellulaire lors de l’infection virale restent à déterminer. Des études in vivo pourraient valider leur utilisation en tant qu’agents antiviraux. / However the rabies viral cycle is fairly well described, the interactions with the cellular machinery are not. This thesis project aimed at identifying and characterizing the cellular signaling pathways involved in the establishment and progress of the viral cycle through the study of cellular kinases. Indeed, kinases are the main actors of these pathways and their effects on certain rabies proteins have already been reported. In order to identify kinases involved in the viral cycle, we screened a kinase inhibitor library for anti-viral activity using a recombinant rabies virus expressing the GFP fluorescent protein. This assay allowed us to isolate two kinase inhibitors that block rabies virus infection: Tyrphostin 9, an inhibitor of the receptor tyrosine kinase platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGF.R), and Rottlerin, a PKCδ inhibitor and mitochondrial uncoupler. We confirmed their anti-viral action in different cell types (fibroblast, glioblastoma, neuroblastoma, as well as primary neurons) and on different rabies strains (CVS and SAD-B19). Using various experimental approaches, we found that each inhibitor impairs an early stage of the viral cycle: the viral fusion and more specifically the endosomal acidification by Tyrphostin 9 and the viral replication step by Rottlerin. We observed that Tyrphostin 9 also caused disintegration of the Golgi apparatus. The inhibition of endosomal acidification could therefore result from this effect. Seeking for the mechanisms involved in Rottlerin’s effect, we evidenced that it is independent of PKCδ. Experiments with a well characterized mitochondrial uncoupler (CCCP), revealed that the Rottlerin anti-viral effect is rather due to its mitochondrial uncoupling function, which leads to a decrease of the cellular ATP level. This study allowed the identification of two kinase inhibitors with anti-viral effects acting on early stages of the rabies cycle. The cellular targets as well as the effect on the cellular functions during viral infection remain to be determined. In vivo studies could validate their use in therapeutics as anti-rabies agents.

Introdução: Gliomas são os tumores cerebrais mais frequentes em pacientes com neoplasias de Sistema Nervoso Central (SNC), sendo o Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) o mais agressivo e letal deles. Apesar dos esforços na melhoria dos tratamentos atuais, o prognóstico para os pacientes com GBM continua sendo incerto. Sendo necessário o uso de novas estratégias terapêuticas que visem melhorar o manejo dos gliomas malignos. A combinação de terapias que agem nas principais vias de sinalização celular envolvidas na progressão do câncer poderia potencializar o efeito antitumoral das monoterapias. Métodos: As linhagens celulares U-87 e A-172 foram tratadas com o anti-EGFR tyrphostin AG1478, o inibidor de histonas deacetilases butirato de sódio (NaB) ou a combinação de ambos, por 72 horas. Tanto a viabilidade avaliada em 72 horas quanto a proliferação celular a longo prazo foram medidas através do ensaio de exclusão com azul de tripan em câmara de Neubauer. A influência do tratamento no ciclo celular e a capacidade de formar colônias foram avaliadas através da marcação com iodeto de propídeo e ensaio clonogênico, respectivamente. Resultados: Foi possível observar que o tratamento combinado com AG1478 e NaB foi capaz de reduzir a viabilidade e a proliferação celular na linhagem U-87 de GBM. Conclusão: Nosso trabalho mostrou que a inibição da via do receptor do fator de crescimento epidérmico (EGFR) combinada com a inibição das histonas deacetilases foi mais efetiva que as monoterapias na inibição da viabilidade e a proliferação celular. Esta redução foi significativa na linhagem U-87. Futuros estudos devem ser feitos para descobrir as possíveis interações entre as duas vias de sinalização em GBM. / Introduction: Gliomas are the most frequent brain tumors, in patients with Central Nervous system (NCS) malignancies, being the Glioblastoma Multiforme the most aggressive and lethal of all. Despite current multimodality treatment efforts, the prognosis for GBM patients remains poor. New therapeutic strategies that target these pathways to improve the treatment of malignant gliomas are needed. Combination of therapies with synergistic effects in the cellular signaling pathways of cancer could potentiate the anti-tumor effect of monotherapy alone. Methods: U87 and A172 cell lines were treated with the anti-EGFR Thyrphostin AG1478, the Histone Deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi) Sodyum Butyrate (NaB), or combination of both, for 72 hours. The cellular proliferation in short and in a long time was measured through the trypan-blue assay on neubauer chamber, the influence on the cell cycle and the capability of form colonies was evaluated by nuclear staining with propidium iodide and clonogenic assay respectively. Results: We found that combined treatment with AG1478 and NaB, are able to reduce the viability and proliferation in U-87. Conclusion: Our work show that combined inhibition of both epidermal growth factor receptor and histone deacetylases was able to reduce cell proliferation in GBM cell lines. This reduction was considerably significant in U-87 cell lines when compared with individual treatments. Further studies should be performed to discover the possible crosstalk between the signaling pathways of both targets in GBM.

Introdução: Gliomas são os tumores cerebrais mais frequentes em pacientes com neoplasias de Sistema Nervoso Central (SNC), sendo o Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) o mais agressivo e letal deles. Apesar dos esforços na melhoria dos tratamentos atuais, o prognóstico para os pacientes com GBM continua sendo incerto. Sendo necessário o uso de novas estratégias terapêuticas que visem melhorar o manejo dos gliomas malignos. A combinação de terapias que agem nas principais vias de sinalização celular envolvidas na progressão do câncer poderia potencializar o efeito antitumoral das monoterapias. Métodos: As linhagens celulares U-87 e A-172 foram tratadas com o anti-EGFR tyrphostin AG1478, o inibidor de histonas deacetilases butirato de sódio (NaB) ou a combinação de ambos, por 72 horas. Tanto a viabilidade avaliada em 72 horas quanto a proliferação celular a longo prazo foram medidas através do ensaio de exclusão com azul de tripan em câmara de Neubauer. A influência do tratamento no ciclo celular e a capacidade de formar colônias foram avaliadas através da marcação com iodeto de propídeo e ensaio clonogênico, respectivamente. Resultados: Foi possível observar que o tratamento combinado com AG1478 e NaB foi capaz de reduzir a viabilidade e a proliferação celular na linhagem U-87 de GBM. Conclusão: Nosso trabalho mostrou que a inibição da via do receptor do fator de crescimento epidérmico (EGFR) combinada com a inibição das histonas deacetilases foi mais efetiva que as monoterapias na inibição da viabilidade e a proliferação celular. Esta redução foi significativa na linhagem U-87. Futuros estudos devem ser feitos para descobrir as possíveis interações entre as duas vias de sinalização em GBM. / Introduction: Gliomas are the most frequent brain tumors, in patients with Central Nervous system (NCS) malignancies, being the Glioblastoma Multiforme the most aggressive and lethal of all. Despite current multimodality treatment efforts, the prognosis for GBM patients remains poor. New therapeutic strategies that target these pathways to improve the treatment of malignant gliomas are needed. Combination of therapies with synergistic effects in the cellular signaling pathways of cancer could potentiate the anti-tumor effect of monotherapy alone. Methods: U87 and A172 cell lines were treated with the anti-EGFR Thyrphostin AG1478, the Histone Deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi) Sodyum Butyrate (NaB), or combination of both, for 72 hours. The cellular proliferation in short and in a long time was measured through the trypan-blue assay on neubauer chamber, the influence on the cell cycle and the capability of form colonies was evaluated by nuclear staining with propidium iodide and clonogenic assay respectively. Results: We found that combined treatment with AG1478 and NaB, are able to reduce the viability and proliferation in U-87. Conclusion: Our work show that combined inhibition of both epidermal growth factor receptor and histone deacetylases was able to reduce cell proliferation in GBM cell lines. This reduction was considerably significant in U-87 cell lines when compared with individual treatments. Further studies should be performed to discover the possible crosstalk between the signaling pathways of both targets in GBM.

Introdução: Gliomas são os tumores cerebrais mais frequentes em pacientes com neoplasias de Sistema Nervoso Central (SNC), sendo o Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) o mais agressivo e letal deles. Apesar dos esforços na melhoria dos tratamentos atuais, o prognóstico para os pacientes com GBM continua sendo incerto. Sendo necessário o uso de novas estratégias terapêuticas que visem melhorar o manejo dos gliomas malignos. A combinação de terapias que agem nas principais vias de sinalização celular envolvidas na progressão do câncer poderia potencializar o efeito antitumoral das monoterapias. Métodos: As linhagens celulares U-87 e A-172 foram tratadas com o anti-EGFR tyrphostin AG1478, o inibidor de histonas deacetilases butirato de sódio (NaB) ou a combinação de ambos, por 72 horas. Tanto a viabilidade avaliada em 72 horas quanto a proliferação celular a longo prazo foram medidas através do ensaio de exclusão com azul de tripan em câmara de Neubauer. A influência do tratamento no ciclo celular e a capacidade de formar colônias foram avaliadas através da marcação com iodeto de propídeo e ensaio clonogênico, respectivamente. Resultados: Foi possível observar que o tratamento combinado com AG1478 e NaB foi capaz de reduzir a viabilidade e a proliferação celular na linhagem U-87 de GBM. Conclusão: Nosso trabalho mostrou que a inibição da via do receptor do fator de crescimento epidérmico (EGFR) combinada com a inibição das histonas deacetilases foi mais efetiva que as monoterapias na inibição da viabilidade e a proliferação celular. Esta redução foi significativa na linhagem U-87. Futuros estudos devem ser feitos para descobrir as possíveis interações entre as duas vias de sinalização em GBM. / Introduction: Gliomas are the most frequent brain tumors, in patients with Central Nervous system (NCS) malignancies, being the Glioblastoma Multiforme the most aggressive and lethal of all. Despite current multimodality treatment efforts, the prognosis for GBM patients remains poor. New therapeutic strategies that target these pathways to improve the treatment of malignant gliomas are needed. Combination of therapies with synergistic effects in the cellular signaling pathways of cancer could potentiate the anti-tumor effect of monotherapy alone. Methods: U87 and A172 cell lines were treated with the anti-EGFR Thyrphostin AG1478, the Histone Deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi) Sodyum Butyrate (NaB), or combination of both, for 72 hours. The cellular proliferation in short and in a long time was measured through the trypan-blue assay on neubauer chamber, the influence on the cell cycle and the capability of form colonies was evaluated by nuclear staining with propidium iodide and clonogenic assay respectively. Results: We found that combined treatment with AG1478 and NaB, are able to reduce the viability and proliferation in U-87. Conclusion: Our work show that combined inhibition of both epidermal growth factor receptor and histone deacetylases was able to reduce cell proliferation in GBM cell lines. This reduction was considerably significant in U-87 cell lines when compared with individual treatments. Further studies should be performed to discover the possible crosstalk between the signaling pathways of both targets in GBM.

Fertilization is a process that generates the first cell of a new organism. In mammals, fertilization occurs in the female reproductive tract. The male gametes (spermatozoa) are rendered fertilization-competent only after they undergo capacitation and acrosome reaction (AR). The set of physiological changes, characterised by the acquisition of hyperactivated motility, that render the spermatozoa fertilization competent is known as capacitation. Using in vitro models, the complex intracellular signaling events mediating this process are still being understood. This thesis explores the role of protein tyrosine phosphorylation during capacitation using the golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) spermatozoa. The knowledge about the molecular components involved in capacitation, apart from enriching our understanding about a basic cellular process could also provide leads in the management of male (in)fertility. A comprehensive review on the perspectives of male reproduction, spermatogenesis, the structural features of a spermatozoon and sperm maturation, relevant to the content of the thesis is provided in Chapter-1 (General Introduction). Molecular mediators that initiate capacitation include cAMP, Ca2+and HCO3- ions. These signalling molecules regulate activities of protein kinases and phosphatases, which control the level of protein phosphorylation in spermatozoa. Capacitation-associated increase in protein phosphorylation, specifically protein tyrosine phosphorylation (PYP) has been demonstrated in a few species such as mouse, rat and human. The unique nature of PYP signaling during sperm capacitation has been exemplified by discoveries of several male germ cell-specific signalling molecules like soluble adenylate cyclase. However,molecular identities of tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins and their functional role during sperm capacitation are yet to be investigated in detail. In this context, the effect of modulating intracellular levels of signaling molecules upstream of protein phosphorylation was sought using pentoxifylline (PF), a cAMP phosphodiesterase inhibitor. Interestingly, PF-induced capacitation was associated with an early induction of tyrosine phosphorylation of proteins (45-80 kDa) localized to the mid piece of the sperm tail. Interestingly, the ultrastructural localization of tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins in the sperm tail by immunoelectron microscopy (IEM) revealed most intense immunolabelling in the fibrous sheath, followed by outer dense fibers (ODFs)and the axoneme. Data pertaining to the effect of PF on sperm capacitation and the associated protein-phosphorylation is presented in Chapter-2. Since PYP was determined to be extremely critical for hyperactivation in spermatozoa, the involvement of protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) in this process was assessed using a specific PTK inhibitor, tyrphostin A47 (TP-47: EGFR-TK specific). The third chapter deals with the effect of tyrphostins on sperm capacitation and PYP. A dose-dependent inhibition by TP-47 of capacitation and principal piece associated-PYP of ~45-60 kDa proteins was observed. Interestingly, TP-47 treated-spermatozoa exhibited a circular motility pattern; when assessed for kinematic parameters, by computer aided sperm analysis, sperm showed lower values for key kinematic parameters as compared to the controls. While sperm viability in TP-47- treated samples was not affected, the ATP content reduced towards latter (4-5 h) part of culture as compared to the controls. When spermatozoa were treated with two other PTK inhibitors, tyrphostin AG1478 (EGFR-TK specific) and tyrphostin AG1296 (PDGFR-TK specific), they did not show any changes in kinematic parameters or PYP, indicating that the TP-47-effect was compound-specific. The fourth chapter of this thesis involves the molecular analysis of proteins hypo-tyrosine phosphorylated in the presence of TP-47, which started with the enrichment of sperm flagellar proteins that are tyrosine phosphorylated during capacitation, using various detergents. Detergent extractions established that most tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins were non-membranous in nature, which complemented the IEM data. Therefore, phosphoproteome analysis of the untreated and TP-47-treated sperm samples was performed. For this, protein extracts were subjected to 2D-PAGE-phosphotyrosine immunoblots. A 51 kDa spot and two 45 kDa spots, corresponding to the hypo-tyrosine phosphorylated spots, were analyzed by MS/MS. While peptides from the 51 kDa protein matched with tektin-2 (a microtubular protein), those of the 45 kDa spots matched with ODF-2 protein of the sperm flagellum. Validation of the presence of tektin-2 and ODF-2 protein and their tyrosine-phosphorylated forms on sperm capacitation in the hamster spermatozoa has also been performed. In addition to detailing the role of PYP in hamster sperm capacitation, this study revealed the identities of a few of these proteins, whose tyrosine phosphorylated status could be critical for optimal sperm flagellar bending, required for sperm hyperactivation. By understanding causes that lead to altered sperm function, for example, as observed with hamster spermatozoa, new insights could be achieved into molecular regulatory mechanisms that govern sperm function in clinical cases of non-obstructive male infertility in the human.

Tyrphostine stellen eine Klasse synthetischer Protein-Tyrosin-Kinase (PTK)-Hemmer, die sich strukturell vom Tyrosin ableiten und dazu dienen, spezifisch Substratphosphorylierungen zu verhindern. Tyrphostin AG126 zeigte entzündungshemmende Eigenschaften in zahlreichen Tiermodellen von Erkrankungen. Dies schließt den septischen Schock ein, der durch Lipopolysaccharid (LPS) Gram-negativer Bakterien induziert werden kann, sowie die durch Zellwandstrukturen Gram-positiver Bakterien ausgelöste bakterielle Meningitis. Wir zeigen nun positive AG126-Effekte in einer weiteren ZNS-Komplikation, der experimentellen autoimmunen Enzephalomyelitis (EAE) als einem Modell der Multiplen Sklerose, wo AG126-Behandlung die klinischen Symptome und Myelinschäden mildert. Auf zellulärer Ebene beeinflusst AG126 eine Vielzahl von Funktionen der Mikroglia, der ZNS-Makrophagen, die durch Aktivierung von Toll-like-Rezeptoren (TLR s) ausgelöst werden. Diese Rezeptoren der angeborenen Immunität erkennen mikrobielle Strukturen sowie Faktoren, die durch Gewebeverletzungen generiert werden. Mit dem Fokus auf Mikroglia untersuchte die vorliegende Arbeit erstmals molekulare Zielstrukturen und Mechanismen des AG126. AG126 beeinflusst besonders Geninduktionen, die vom Adaptorprotein MyD88, einem der zwei TLR-Signalwege, abhängen. Bruton s Tyrosin-Kinase (BTK), eine MyD88-assoziierte PTK, kann von AG126 in molekularen und zellbasierten Assays gehemmt werden. Diese Hemmung kann allerdings nicht das gesamte Spektrum der AG126-Effekte erklären. Daher müssen alternative, sogar PTK-unabhängige Mechanismen, in Betracht gezogen werden, basierend auf strukturellen und funktionellen Ähnlichkeiten zu Tyrosin-abgeleiteten und/oder mikrogliaaktiven Molekülen. Diese alternativen Mechanismen umfassen Prinzipien, die für Antioxidantien, adrenerge Agonisten, Glukokortikoide oder Entkoppler der oxidativen Phosphorylierung bekannt sind. Tatsächlich zeigen Analysen auf der Grundlage von Kernspinresonanzspektroskopie, dass AG126 in die Hauptprodukte 3-Hydroxy-4-Nitroben zaldehyd (BZ) und Malononitril (MN) zerfallen kann, von denen MN, aber nicht BZ, die AG126-Effekte in Mikroglia imitiert. Ein ähnliches Verhalten zeigen weitere Tyrphostine, die ebenfalls das kritische MN-Strukturmotiv aufweisen. Tierexperimente zeigen schließlich, dass nur AG126 als Ausgangstruktur, nicht aber MN oder BZ, das Gesamtspektrum protektiver Effekte in der EAE vermittelt. Die Identifizierung des eigentlichen von AG126 bzw. von MN beeinflussten Targets könnte somit einen wesentlichen Mechanismus für die Entwicklung von entzündungshemmenden Verbindungen offenlegen.