Attention has begun to focus on the pulmonary delivery of antifungal agents for invasive fungal infections as inhalation of the fungal spores is often the initial step in the pathogenesis of many of these infections. Invasive fungal infection in the lungs in immunocompromised patients has high mortality rates despite current systemic (oral or intravenous) therapies. However, drug delivery of antifungal agents directly to the lungs could potentially result in high concentrations of drug in the lungs, a quicker onset of action, and reduction of systemic side effects. Voriconazole (VRC) is a second, generation triazole antifungal agent with increased potency, a broad spectrum of antifungal activity, and a fairly poor aqueous solubility. It is the recommended therapeutic agent for the treatment of Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis (IPA), and its use has improved therapeutic outcomes in immunocompromised patients with IPA. Still, systemic administration by oral or intravenous delivery is limited by high inter- and intra-patient pharmacokinetic variability, many potential drug interactions, and a narrow therapeutic index with many adverse effects, leading to clinical failures. Therefore, development of novel particulate formulations containing VRC for targeted drug delivery to the lungs is critical to improving therapeutic outcomes in patients with invasive fungal infections in the lungs. Within the framework of this dissertation, two particle engineering processes, thin film freezing (TFF) and advanced evaporative precipitation into aqueous solution (AEPAS), were investigated. The goal was to investigate microcrystalline VRC, nanocrystalline VRC, and nanostructured amorphous VRC formulations suitable for pulmonary delivery and to determine the effect of morphology on the in vivo deposition and distribution of inhaled particulate VRC formulations. TFF process parameters significantly affected the solid state properties and aerodynamic performance of the dry powder formulations containing VRC. Following dry powder insufflation into the lungs of mice, microstructured crystalline TFF-VRC achieved higher and more prolonged concentrations of VRC in the lungs with slightly lower systemic bioavailability than nanostructured amorphous TFF-VRC-PVP K25. AEPAS and TFF of template nanoemulsions did not lead to production of crystalline nanoparticles, as predicted. In particular, VRC proved to be a difficult molecule to stabilize in the nanocrystalline and nanostructured amorphous states. Ultimately, this body of work demonstrated that the particle engineering process, TFF, could be used to develop voriconazole formulations suitable for dry powder inhalation with more favorable pharmacokinetic parameters compared to inhaled voriconazole solution. / text

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High throughput screening techniques that are routinely used in modern drug discovery processes result in a higher prevalence of poorly water-soluble drugs. Such drugs often have poor bioavailability issues due to their poor dissolution and/or permeability to achieve sufficient and consistent systemic exposure, resulting in sub-optimal therapeutic efficacies, particularly via oral administration. Alternative formulations and delivery routes are demanded to improve their bioavailability. Nanoparticulate formulations of poorly water-soluble drugs offer improved dissolution profiles. The physiology of the lung makes it an ideal target for non-invasive local and systemic drug delivery for poorly water-soluble drugs. In Chapter 2, a particle engineering process ultra-rapid freezing (URF) was utilized to produce nanostructured aggregates of itraconazole (ITZ), a BCS class II drug, for pulmonary delivery with approved biocompatible excipients. The obtained formulation, ITZ:mannitol:lecithin (1:0.5:0.2, w/w), i.e. URF-ITZ, was a solid solution with high surface area and ability to achieve high magnitude of supersaturation. An aqueous colloidal dispersion of URF-ITZ was suitable for nebulization, which demonstrated optimal aerodynamic properties for deep lung delivery and high lung and systemic ITZ levels when inhaled by mice. The significantly improved systemic bioavailability of inhaled URF-ITZ was mainly ascribed to the amorphous morphology that raised the drug solubility. The effect of supersaturation of amorphous URF-ITZ relative to nanocrystalline ITZ on bioavailability following inhalation was evaluated in Chapter 3. The nanoparticulate amorphous ITZ composition resulted in a significantly higher systemic bioavailability than for the nanocrystalline ITZ composition, as a result of the higher supersaturation that increased the permeation. In Chapter 4, pharmacokinetics of inhaled nebulized aerosols of solubilized ITZ in solution versus nanoparticulate URF-ITZ colloidal dispersion were investigated, under the hypothesis that solubilized ITZ can be absorbed faster through mucosal membrane than the nanoparticulate ITZ. Despite similar ITZ lung deposition, the inhaled solubilized ITZ demonstrated significantly faster systemic absorption across lung epithelium relative to nanoparticulate ITZ in mice, due in part to the elimination of the phase-to-phase transition of nanoparticulate ITZ. / text

Cryopreservation is currently the universal method for embryo storage, transport, sanitary control and trading. The conventional bovine embryo freezing method still has some drawbacks such as the freezing period and costs of the freezing equipment. In order to decrease costs and time, the effect of thealose on ultra-rapid freezing with ethylene glycol was evaluated. Ninety seven in vivo produced bovine embryos were randomly distributed in two treatments for ultra-rápid deep freezing with 3.M ethylene glycol (T1; n= 46) and 3.M ethylene glycol + 0.3M trehalose (T2; n= 51). In T1, embryos were exposed to a 3.0M ethylene glycol in Emcare® (ICP) holding media and in T2 to a 3.0M ethylene glycol plus 0.3M trehalose in Emcare® holding media. Embryos of both treatments were kept for 2 minutes in the freezing solutions; loaded in 0,25cc straws and there after they were exposed to N2 vapor during 20 seconds to be plunged immediately into liquid nitrogen. After thawing, embryos were transferred to previously synchronized recipients resulting at 28 days in 7 (15.21%) pregnancies in T1 and also 7 (13.72%) in T2. No significant difference was detected between treatments (P>0.05). The trehalose and ethylene glycol solution is suitable for direct transfer of bovine embryos. However, the conception rate obtained in this study do not allow its indication for commercial embryo freezing. / A criopreservação tem fundamental importância na armazenagem, transporte, controle sanitário e comércio de embriões. O método de congelamento rápido convencional de embriões bovinos ainda apresenta entraves como o tempo de execução e o alto valor comercial do equipamento. Com a finalidade de minimizar tempo de congelamento e os custos, avaliou-se o efeito da trealose no congelamento ultra-rápido de embriões bovinos com etilenoglicol. Noventa e sete (n=97) embriões bovinos produzidos in vivo foram congelados pelo método ultra-rápido com 3,0M de etilenoglicol e 3,0M de etilenoglicol + 0,3M de trealose. Os embriões foram distribuídos aleatóriamente em dois tratamentos. No tratamento 1 (T1) quarenta e seis (n= 46) embriões foram expostos à solução de 3,0M de etilenoglicol em solução de manutenção Emcare®(ICP) e cinqüenta e um (n= 51) embriões foram congelados com 3,0M de etilenoglicol associado a 0,3M de trealose em solução de manutenção Emcare®. Os embriões foram mantidos na solução de congelamento por 2 minutos, envasados em palhetas de 025cc, expostos ao vapor de nitrogênio por 20 segundos e submersos no nitrogênio líquido. Após o descongelamento, os embriões foram transferidos para receptoras previamente sincronizadas, resultando aos 28 dias, em 7 (15,21%) gestações no T1 e 7 (13,72%) no T2. Não houve diferença (P>0,05) entre os tratamentos. O acréscimo de trealose ao etilenoglicol mostrou-se viável para a transferência direta dos embriões, porém o índice de concepção obtido ainda não permite sua indicação no congelamento comercial de embriões bovinos.

Poorly water soluble drugs have been manipulated to make them more soluble, increasing the bioavailability of these drugs. Several cryogenic processes allow for production of drug nanoparticles, without mechanical stress that could cause degradation. The Ultra Rapid Freezing (URF) process is a technique which improves water solubility of drugs by reducing primary drug particle size by producing amorphous solid dispersions. Heat conduction is improved, using a cryogenic material with a high thermal conductivity relative to the solution being frozen to maintain the surface temperature and heat transfer rate while the solution is being frozen. With URF technology, the freezing rate is fixed, which drives the particle formation and determines its characteristics. Supersaturation of drug in aqueous solution can allow for better absorption of the drug via the oral and pulmonary routes. Drug formulations that supersaturate the dissolution media show the possibility for increased bioavailability from an amorphous drug form. If the concentration of drug in solution is significantly increased, higher chemical potential will lead to an increase in flux across an exposed membrane, leading to higher blood levels for an amorphous drug, compared to an identical crystalline formulation. During oral delivery, supersaturated drug concentrations would also saturate PGP efflux sites in the gut lumen, increasing the drug's bioavailability. Saturated PGP sites show zero order efflux kinetics, so increasing the drug concentration in supersaturated biological fluid will increase serum drug levels. High supersaturation levels maintained for prolonged periods would have a beneficial effect on a drug's absolute bioavailability. Pulmonary administration offers therapeutic advantages over more invasive routes of administration. Limited amount of metabolizing enzymes like CYP 3A4 in lung tissue along with avoidance of first pass metabolism are advantages to pulmonary delivery. The objective of the research presented in this dissertation is to show the versatility of nanoparticulate poorly water soluble drug formulations. Due to the reduced particle size and the URF manufacturing process, a wide range of applications can be used with these nanoparticles. Oral and pulmonary administration routes can be explored using nanoparticles, but in vitro cell culture testing can show clinical benefits from this type of processing technology. / text