Article 334 of the Constitution of India (1950) stipulates that certain electoral districts in each state should be reserved for minority groups, namely the “Scheduled Caste”(SC) and the Scheduled Tribe”(ST), through the reservation of seats in the states' legislative assemblies. Even though the original article stated that the reservation policy would be in place for just twenty years, it has been amended several times and is still in effect. This dissertation examines the impact of the policy on the education and health outcomes of the SC population. Variations in seat quotas are generated by the timing of elections in different states and the states’ fluctuating SC populations. The first paper on education uses data from 25 Indian States and 3 Union Territories for the years 1990-2011 to form a panel dataset to estimate the impact of the quota system on both enrollment and dropout rates among SC students in all levels of schooling. I use the fixed effect regression to test the mechanisms through which an elected SC legislator could have an influence on the education outcomes for the SC population in the represented state. I then use the resulting variables as my controls to identify the causal relationship using the dynamic panel data model. I find that a SC legislator has the potential to influence the number of schools built, as well as the amount of education and welfare expenditure allocated to the SC population. Moreover, I find that the SC political reservation has a positive and statistically significant impact on the SC enrollment rates and a negative and significant impact on the dropout rates, in all levels of schooling. Likewise, I use the NFHS-3 dataset and the Cox Proportional Hazard Model to estimate the hazard rates (risks of dying) of children under the age of 12 months (IMR) and under the age of 60 months (U5MR) as influenced by different SC quota share quintiles. I find that the 50-60% quota-share quintile has the biggest impact in reducing the IMR and U5MR among the SC children.

Measuring levels of childhood mortality is important for low and middle-income countries to monitor overall development and progress towards improved child health. The overall aim of this research is to estimate the level and trend of childhood mortality in South Africa over time, and to examine the factors associated with and the determinants of childhood mortality. The study discovered that significant progress has been made to reduce the levels of childhood mortality in the country. The estimates derived through direct estimation using the 2016 South African Demographic and Health Survey (SADHS) for the period between 2012-2016 revealed age-specific mortality rates were: Neonatal Mortality Rate (NMR) was 22.0 per 1 000 live births, Post-neonatal Mortality Rate (PNMR) 13.1, 1q0 34.9, 1q4 5.5 and 5q0 40.2 per 1 000 live births. Investigation of the factors associated with childhood mortality revealed significant differentials in age group, sex, population group, province, socio-economic status and household characteristics. Overall, children aged less than one month and those aged between one to two months had a higher mortality risk than the other age groups; male children had an increased risk of dying than females; Black and Coloured children had an increased risk of dying compared to children in other population groups; children in Mpumalanga, Eastern Cape and North West had a higher risk of dying compared to children in other provinces; children whose mothers had below secondary education had higher risks of mortality; and children with poor water source and toilet facility were more likely to die than other children with better facilities. The results were generally in agreement with the existing literature. Although the study found significant improvement in the level of childhood mortality over the period 1996-2016, further progress is achievable as many children still continue to die of preventable or treatable causes. The findings of this study may assist government, policymakers and researchers to plan, and implement targeted interventions that will further reduce the levels of childhood mortality in South Africa.

No description available.

This thesis strives to examine firstly if migration is a significant adaptation strategy to the experience of abundant precipitation, and secondly whether under-five mortality works attenuating or enhancing when being an intermediating factor. With cross-country panel data for precipitation and migration percentage for 169 countries over the world for the time period 1950-2005, a fixed effect model has been created for both parts of the analysis — in the first one to estimate the effects of abundant precipitation on migration flows, and in the second one to examine if and how the mortality rates of children under the age of five works as driver on the effect between abundant precipitation and migration. The results illustrated a positive and significant effect of precipitation on migration when same-year data was used. For the five-year lag data and the ten-year lag data, the null hypothesis which indicates that there is no relationship between the variables could not be rejected, but there were still results that indicated that the migration goes up in a five-year perspective and decreases in a ten-year perspective. The results from the first part of the analysis do not illustrate enormous effects. For the second part of the analysis, results show that the effect of precipitation on under-five mortality does, in contrary to the stated hypothesis, implicate an attenuation as opposed to an enhancement of the effect of precipitation on migration. Due to low precision and non-significant results, it is not possible to determine how exactly the effects are directly affecting each other. This thesis has however helped to prove that one can reject that the effects are strongly enhancing each other.

<p>The aim of this thesis was to explore the impact of physical, sexual and emotional violence against women of reproductive age and the level of controlling behaviour in marriage on child health and survival in two different cultural settings: Bangladesh and Nicaragua. </p><p>Data were acquired from four quantitative community-based studies. In two studies, a cohort including a prospective two year follow-up of 3164 mother-infant pairs in rural Bangladesh was investigated. A third study was a case-referent study in Nicaragua including mothers of 110 cases of under-five deaths and 203 referents, and in a forth study an other cohort of 1048 rural Bangladeshi women and their 2691 children was followed until 5 years of age. </p><p>Maternal exposure to any form of violence, including physical, sexual, emotional, and controlling behaviour was independently associated with lower body size at birth, increased risk of stunting and under-weight at 24 months of age, slower growth velocity during the first two years of life and a higher incidence of diarrhoeal episodes and respiratory tract infections. In the Nicaraguan setting, the children of women who experienced any history of physical violence had a two-fold increase in risk of death before the age of 5 years, and those whose mothers experienced both physical and sexual violence had a six-fold increase in risk of death. In Bangladesh, an association between violence against women and under-five mortality was found among daughters of educated mothers who were exposed to severe physical violence or a high level of controlling behaviour in marriage. In all four studies, lifetime violence experience among participating mothers was high (37-69%), and the timing was less relevant than the exposure to violence <i>per se</i>. </p><p>In conclusion, this investigation revealed that violence against women severely affects child health and survival. The findings are especially relevant in a context of high level of child under-nutrition, morbidity and under-five mortality. Efforts for protecting women from all forms of violence are needed as part of the interventions for improved child health.</p>

Nigeria is one of the countries with the highest Under-5 Mortality rates (U5M) estimated at 117 deaths/1000 live births. Despite public health control initiatives, no significant improvement in U5M has been demonstrated. The purpose of the study was to determine whether history of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes (APO) and maternal socioeconomic factors could predict the death of children before their fifth birthday, using the life course health development and fetal programming theories. The study population was women in their reproductive age (15- 49 years). The study was a secondary data analysis of the datasets obtained from three Nigeria Demographic and Health Surveys (2003, 2008, and 2013). Complex samples multivariate logistic regression was used to determine the associations among variables. The results showed that lower education level (p < 0.001), lower income level (p <0.05), rural residential setting (p< 0.01), and lower socioeconomic status index (p < 0.001) of women were statistically significant predictors of U5M. APO was not statistically associated with U5M (p > 0.05). This concludes that children of women with low socioeconomic factors and status index could be at higher risk of death within the first 5 years of their lives, and women with history of APO stand no greater risk of losing their under-5 children. The study would contribute to positive social change among women in Nigeria through early identification of women whose children may be at risk of U5M and provision of evidence-based advocacy to urge increased government and public attention to women and child welfare.

The aim of this thesis was to explore the impact of physical, sexual and emotional violence against women of reproductive age and the level of controlling behaviour in marriage on child health and survival in two different cultural settings: Bangladesh and Nicaragua. Data were acquired from four quantitative community-based studies. In two studies, a cohort including a prospective two year follow-up of 3164 mother-infant pairs in rural Bangladesh was investigated. A third study was a case-referent study in Nicaragua including mothers of 110 cases of under-five deaths and 203 referents, and in a forth study an other cohort of 1048 rural Bangladeshi women and their 2691 children was followed until 5 years of age. Maternal exposure to any form of violence, including physical, sexual, emotional, and controlling behaviour was independently associated with lower body size at birth, increased risk of stunting and under-weight at 24 months of age, slower growth velocity during the first two years of life and a higher incidence of diarrhoeal episodes and respiratory tract infections. In the Nicaraguan setting, the children of women who experienced any history of physical violence had a two-fold increase in risk of death before the age of 5 years, and those whose mothers experienced both physical and sexual violence had a six-fold increase in risk of death. In Bangladesh, an association between violence against women and under-five mortality was found among daughters of educated mothers who were exposed to severe physical violence or a high level of controlling behaviour in marriage. In all four studies, lifetime violence experience among participating mothers was high (37-69%), and the timing was less relevant than the exposure to violence per se. In conclusion, this investigation revealed that violence against women severely affects child health and survival. The findings are especially relevant in a context of high level of child under-nutrition, morbidity and under-five mortality. Efforts for protecting women from all forms of violence are needed as part of the interventions for improved child health.

No description available.

Depuis plusieurs décennies, la réflexion sur le lien entre l'éducation des parents, en particulier celle de la mère sur la mortalité des enfants est demeurée une priorité de recherche et un enjeu majeur pour les organisations internationales et les décideurs politiques des pays en développement, confrontés à une mortalité plus élevée et un niveau d’éducation plus faible que dans les pays à revenu élevé. Toutefois, en dépit des arguments théoriques qui justifient l’importance de l’éducation de la mère sur la mortalité des enfants, bon nombre de travaux empiriques menés dans les pays en développement, et surtout ceux de l'Afrique subsaharienne, ont révélé une relation mitigée, indiquant parfois une atténuation ou une absence de relation. Les raisons avancées pour expliquer la divergence des résultats observés ont généralement trait aux différents contextes dans lesquels les études ont été réalisées et aux problèmes surtout d’ordre méthodologique et conceptuel résultant des données disponibles. En utilisant les données des Enquêtes Démographiques et de Santé (EDS) du Bénin, l'objectif principal de cette thèse était d’aboutir à une meilleure compréhension des aspects méthodologiques et conceptuels relatifs à l’association entre l’éducation des parents et la mortalité des enfants. Trois objectifs spécifiques sont examinés. Le premier objectif spécifique est consacré à la relation entre l’éducation de la mère et la mortalité des enfants de moins de cinq ans en 1991-1996 et 2001-2006 pour cerner d'une part, les différences de mortalité des enfants selon les catégories d'éducation de la mère à chacune des périodes et, d'autre part, la variation du risque de mortalité des enfants selon l'éducation de la mère entre ces deux périodes, considérant la baisse de mortalité des enfants qu'a connue le Bénin. Le deuxième objectif spécifique vise à cerner l'impact du niveau moyen de l’éducation des femmes de la communauté sur la mortalité des enfants. Dans le troisième objectif spécifique, nous évaluons dans quelle mesure l'éducation du père (variable souvent omise dans les études antérieures) contribue à l'amélioration de la survie des enfants. Les résultats de nos analyses sont présentés sous forme d’articles scientifiques. À l'aide des analyses multi-niveaux en temps discret, les résultats de l'article 1 montrent que le risque de mortalité des enfants de mères non éduquées n'est pas significativement différent de celui des enfants de mères qui n'ont pas complété le cycle primaire (1 à 5 ans de scolarité). Ce résultat a été observé aussi bien à l’EDS de 1996 qu'à celle de 2006. Le risque de mortalité des enfants de mères qui ont complété au moins le cycle primaire (6 années de scolarité et plus) est plutôt faible comparativement à celui des enfants de mères non éduquées. Les résultats montrent également que le différentiel du risque de mortalité des enfants de moins de cinq ans selon l'éducation de la mère n'a pas significativement changé entre les deux périodes d'enquêtes (1991-1996 et 2001-2006) au Bénin. S'agissant de l’impact du niveau moyen d’éducation des femmes de la communauté sur la mortalité des enfants (article 2), nos résultats confirment que le risque de mortalité des enfants de moins de cinq ans est moins élevé dans les communautés où la proportion de femmes éduquées est plus élevée, et ce, indépendamment de l'éducation de la mère. Plus intéressant, l'effet de l'éducation communautaire sur la mortalité des enfants de moins de cinq ans était plus important dans les communautés où l'offre de soins de santé est disponible et accessible. Quant à l'influence de l'éducation du père (variable souvent omise dans les précédentes études) (article 3), il ressort que le fait d'avoir un père éduqué réduit significativement le risque de mortalité des enfants. Par contre, son effet s'est révélé significatif seulement dans les communautés où l'offre de soins de santé est disponible et accessible. / The possible impact of parental education (especially that of the mother) on child mortality remains an important issue for researchers and a priority for international organizations and policy makers in developing countries, which face relatively higher mortality and lower levels of education. However, despite the theoretical arguments that justify the importance of mother's education for child mortality, many studies in developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, have revealed an ambiguous relationship, indicating sometimes an attenuation or lack of relationship. The lack of conclusive evidence is generally related to different contexts in which the studies were conducted and to methodological and conceptual problems resulting from the data used. Using DHS data from Benin, the main objective of this thesis is to contribute to a better understanding of the association between parental education and the under-five mortality. Specifically, this study examines: 1) the levels of child mortality by mother's education, focusing on differences between children born to women with no versus incomplete primary schooling (1-5 years of schooling) and changes in the estimated effects of mothers’ schooling across two time periods (1991-1996 and 2001-2006); 2) the extent to which education of women in the community influences the under-five mortality, and finally, 3) the impact of fathers’ schooling on under-five mortality. Using multilevel discrete-time logit models, we show in the first article that mothers with more than 5 years of schooling experience lower under-five mortality risk than mothers with no education. However, no significant difference in the under-five mortality risk between mothers with no education and those with incomplete primary education (1-5 years of schooling) is found for either of the two surveys. Furthermore, estimated effect of mothers’ schooling on under-five mortality did not change significantly between 1991-1996 to 2001-2006. In the second article, our results confirm that residing in a community where more women aged 15-49 have over 5 years of schooling is independently associated with lower under-five mortality. Interestingly, the impact of women's education in the community was more pronounced in areas with higher average child immunization rates. This suggests that the availability and accessibility of health services in the community is a possible mechanism through which the women's community-level education influences child survival. In the third article, we found that father's education is positively associated with the child survival, an effect that is attenuated when after controlling for the supply of health care services accessible in the community.

The presented diploma thesis deals with the comparison of mortality structure by age and includes 194 member countries of the World Health Organization. The aim of the thesis is to confront mortality development in these countries with the help of individual mortality characteristics. At the beginning of this thesis are defined demographic terms and indicators, data sources and calculation methodology. The databases of the World Health Organization and the World Bank were used as the main source of data and all countries were divided into six world regions. The second chapter is devoted to selected types of mortality, namely neonatal and infant, under-five mortality, maternal mortality and adult mortality. After that, the work focuses on life expectancy of 0 and 60 years of age divided per sex. The last chapter is devoted to the optimum retirement age in selected countries. Conclusion connects of the all above well, and we can find there comprehensive information about difference of mortality practically all over the world.