Aspen is a key resource in the Rocky Mountain Region for wildlife forage and habitat, lumber products, scenery, and plays important roles in fire ecology and hydrological processes. There is evidence of aspen decline over much of the Intermountain West for approximately 100 years. In Dixie and Fishlake National Forests, UT, aspen distribution has decreased by nearly half. Causes of this decline are not well understood, although wildlife browsing by ungulates has been implicated as playing a major role. The objective of this research was to examine what soil or plant factors might be involved in wildlife browse choice in aspen. Twenty-two pairs of moderately and intensively browsed sites were studied to identify factors related to browse preferences over two field seasons. In the summer of 2008, sites were sampled in June, July, and August, and in the summer of 2009 sites were sampled in August only. Soils were analyzed for pH, EC, total nitrogen and carbon, and mineral nutrients. Leaf tissue samples were analyzed for defense chemical (tannin and phenolic glycoside) concentrations, mineral nutrients (via acid digestion), acid-detergent fiber, water content, carbon:nitrogen ratio, and non-structural carbohydrate (sugar) concentration. No significant difference in phenolic glycoside concentrations between moderately and intensively browsed sites was found. Tannins were highest in sites with intensive levels of browsing. Iron was significantly higher and zinc lower in intensively than moderately browsed sites. Leaf moisture was also significantly lower in intensively browsed sites. In the absence of differences in phenolic glycosides, ungulates may be selecting browse sites based on iron requirements. Seasonal changes in the studied factors could be identified in 2008. Over the course of the summer, we found significant decreases in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, zinc, iron, copper, phenolic glycosides, and moisture concentration. Seasonal increases in calcium, sodium, tannins, sugars, acid-detergent fiber, and carbon:nitrogen ratios were observed. The need for large ungulates to obtain specific nutrients may indicate that aspen is in higher demand as a forage at different times of the year, particularly in areas with forages low in these nutrients. Our data suggest that aspen high in iron may be at risk since other factors explaining browsing choice were not significantly different in our study. This information can help identify clones that are at risk and direct resources where and when they are needed most.

We studied the dynamic of nine populations of Alpine ibex ( Capra ibex ibex ) in five protected areas. We showed a strong effect of age on demographic parameters, with a marked decrease of survival after 10-12 years of age. We also found a high variability of old females' reproduction between populations. Contrary to what is expected for a highly dimorphic species like ibex, males survived as well as females except for old individuals. Winter harshness had a negative impact on survival of old individuals but not on reproduction and survival of young. We conclude that ibex have evolved a highly conservative life-history tactic compared to other ungulates studied to now. From a management viewpoint we also showed that under some circumstances ground counts might provide reliable estimates of ibex population trends.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2017. / The distribution of grazing herbivores is influenced by several factors, including spatial and temporal availability of resources. The Telperion and Ezemvelo Nature Reserves (TENR), located on the border between Gauteng and Mpumalanga Provinces, experienced a declining hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus caama) distribution over the last years. Simultaneously, an increase in the density of plains zebra (Equus quagga) occurred in the reserves. In this study, I investigated the changes in the distribution of four herbivore species, namely red hartebeest, plains zebra, blue wildebeest and black wildebeest in TENR, and the possible influence that biotic and abiotic factors had on the distribution of hartebeest between 2010 and 2016. Data of aerial surveys conducted in the wet season of each year were used to assess the variation in herbivores distribution along the period. Furthermore, the influence of variables known to affect herbivore distribution (e.g. distance to water, slope gradient, spatial distribution of other herbivore species and vegetation greenness) was tested on hartebeest distribution in TENR. The results indicate that blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) had the highest distribution variation, while plains zebra presented the most spread distribution among the four species, and black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou) concentrated their distribution almost entirely at the Ezemvelo nature reserve. Hartebeest avoided areas with the highest concentration of plains zebra, but did not show the same avoidance for areas with prevalence of wildebeest species. Further, high quality forage resources influenced the hartebeest distribution in TENR. Thus, competition for forage resources with bulk feeders may have affected the population and distribution of hartebeest between 2010-2016. / LG2018

Water is a vital resource for species inhabiting arid and semi-arid regions and can shape the biotic communities that we observe. Because water is considered a limiting resource for many species in desert environments, there is the potential for competitive interactions between species to occur at or around water sources. For this dissertation I tested hypotheses related to resource competition among different species of wildlife in the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts of western Utah. Chapter one evaluated the influence of feral horses (Equus caballus) on patterns of water use by communities of native birds and mammals. Chapter two determined if feral horses competed with pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) for access to water. In chapters one and two, we found evidence that horses compete with native wildlife for water. In chapter one, horses were associated with decreased richness and diversity of native species at water sources. Native species also had fewer visits and spent less time at water sources frequented by horses. In chapter two, we found that pronghorn and mule deer used water sources less often where horse activity was high. There were also significant differences in temporal activity for pronghorn, but not mule deer, at horse-occupied sites versus sites where horses were absent or uncommon. Our results indicated that horses spatially and temporally displaced other species at water sources providing evidence of a negative influence on how communities of native wildlife access a limited resource in an arid environment. Chapter three assessed whether dominant carnivores (coyote (Canis latrans) and bobcat (Lynx rufus)) negatively influenced the spatial use of water sources by the subordinate kit fox (Vulpes macrotis). Our results did not reveal strong negative associations between kit fox visits to water sources and visits by dominant carnivores; in fact, dominant carnivores contributed very little to the use of water by kit foxes. Instead, kit fox visits were more closely associated with habitat features at water sources. Our findings indicate that dominant carnivores are not the primary driver of use of water sources by subordinate carnivores. Chapter four evaluated whether a simulated loss of water due to climate change/increased human use would differentially affect desert bats based on flight morphology and maneuverability. When we experimentally reduced surface area of water sources, larger, less-maneuverable bats experienced a 69% decrease in drinking success and increased competition with smaller, maneuverable bats. Anticipated reductions in the sizes of water sources due to climate change may lead to species with less maneuverability being unable to access water efficiently and facing increased competition from more agile bats.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Pretoria, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references.

The development of conservation and management programs for an animal population relies on a knowledge of the number of individuals in an area. In order to achieve reliable estimates, precise and accurate techniques for estimating population densities are needed. This study compared the use of direct and indirect methods of estimating kudu (Trage/aphus strepsiceras), bush buck (Trage/aphus scriptus), common duiker (Sy/vicapra grimmia), and blue duiker (Philantamba manticala) densities on Shamwari Game Reserve in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. These species prefer habitats of dense forest and bush for concealment and are therefore not easily counted in open areas. Herein direct observation counts were compared to indirect sampling via pellet group counts (clearance plots, line transects, variable-width transects, and strip transects). Clearance plots were examined every 2 weeks, while all other methods were conducted seasonally, from August 2002 until August 2003. The strip transect method provided the lowest density estimates (animals per hal ranging from 0.001 for bushbuck to 0.025 for common duiker, while direct observations yielded the highest estimates, ranging from 0.804 for bush buck to 4.692 for kudu. Also, a validation of methods was performed against a known population of kudu during which the DISTANCE method yielded the most accurate results, with an estimated density of 0.261 that was within the actual density of 0.246 to 0.282. In addition, the DISTANCE method was compared to helicopter counts ofkudu and its estimates were found to be approximately 2.6 times greater than the helicopter count results. When the assessment of the methods was made, the cost, manpower and effort requirements, coefficient of variation, and performance against a known population for each method were taken into consideration. Overall, the DISTANCE method performed the best with low cost, minimal manpower and effort requirements, and low coefficient of variation. On Shamwari Game Reserve, the DISTANCE method estimated 0.300 kudu, 0.108 bushbuck, 0.387 common duiker, and 0.028 blue duiker per ha, which, when extrapolated to the total number of animals present within subtropical thicket habitat, estimated 1973 kudu, 710 bush buck, 2545 common duiker, and 184 blue duiker.

This research deals with the challenges of the conservation of tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) in the Chitwan National Park of Nepal and aims to be a model for tiger conservation in the tropical areas of other tiger range countries. Despite the high level of public concern and major investments during the last few decades for conservation, wild tigers continue to be under grave threat, and their preservation now requires, more than ever before, using reliable ecological knowledge for their conservation interventions. In this dissertation, I investigated various factors that affect on tiger conservation in this park: population status of prey, dietary patterns of tiger and its impact on sympatric carnivores (e.g., leopard) and increasing human-wildlife conflicts, effects of habitat structures and human disturbances on prey and predator species abundance and distribution.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Os ungulados viventes (Cetartiodactyla e Perissodactyla), nas regiões estudadas, são representados por 11 gêneros e 24 espécies. O presente estudo propõe reconhecer os padrões de distribuição destas espécies, a partir da aplicação do método pan-biogeográfico de análise de traços. Este método auxilia no entendimento a priori dos padrões congruentes de distribuição e numa compreensão de padrões e processos de diferenciação geográfica no tempo e no espaço, reconstruindo a biogeografia de táxons. Em relação a aspectos conservacionistas, o método foi aplicado na identificação de áreas prioritárias para conservação. A aplicação do método consiste basicamente na marcação das localidades de ocorrência dos diferentes táxons em mapas, sendo estas localidades conectadas por intermédio de linhas seguindo um critério de mínima distância, resultando nos chamados traços individuais que foram plotados nos mapas de biomas da América Central e do Sul do programa ArcView GIS 3.2. A superposição destes traços individuais define um traço generalizado, sugerindo uma história comum, ou seja, a preexistência de uma biota ancestral subsequentemente fragmentada por eventos vicariantes. A interseção de dois ou mais traços generalizados corresponde a um nó biogeográfico, que representa áreas compostas e complexas, nas quais se agrupam distintas histórias biogeográficas. Para a análise pan-biogeográfica foi utilizado o software ArcView GIS 3.2 e a extensão Trazos 2004. A partir da superposição dos 24 traços individuais, foram reconhecidos cinco traços generalizados (TGs): TG1, Mesoamericano/Chocó, composto por Mazama pandora, M. temama e Tapirus bairdii; TG2, Andes do Norte (Mazama rufina, Pudu mephistophiles e Tapirus pinchaque); TG 3, Andes Centrais (Hippocamelus antisensis, Lama guanicoe, Mazama chunyi e Vicugna vicugna) ; TG4, Patagônia chilena (Hippocamelus bisulcus e Pudu puda).; TG5, Chaco/Centro oeste do Brasil (Blastocerus dichotomus, Catagonus wagneri e Ozotocerus bezoarticus); e um nó biogeográfico em Antioquia no noroeste da Colômbia. As espécies Mazama americana, M.bricenii, M.goazoubira, M.nana, Tapirus terrestris, Tayassu pecari e T. tajacu não participaram de nenhum dos traços generalizados. Os padrões de distribuição formados a partir dos traços generalizados indicam que os ungulados viventes sofreram uma fragmentação e diferenciação no Pleistoceno, relacionadas a eventos históricos ocorridos na região Neotropical, na Zona de Transição Sul-americana e na região Andina, explicados pelos movimentos ocorridos nas Zonas de Falhas Tectônicas da América Central e do Sul, por vulcanismo e pelas mudanças climáticas. A formação do platô Altiplano-Puna revelou ser uma barreira geográfica, tanto em tempos pretéritos como em tempos atuais, para a maioria da biota sul-americana, com exceção dos camelídeos, que habitam estas áreas da Argentina, do oeste da Bolívia e sudoeste do Peru. O nó biogeográfico confirmou a presença de componentes bióticos de diferentes origens, constituindo uma área com grande diversidade biológica e endêmica, sugerindo assim uma unidade de conservação no noroeste da América do Sul. / The living ungulates (Cetartiodactyla and Perissodactyla) are represented in the studied regions by 11 genera and 24 species. This study proposes to recognize the distribution patterns of these species, using the panbiogeographical method of track analysis. This method is a useful tool in a priori understanding of the congruent distribution patterns and in the knowledge of patterns and processes of geographical differentiation in time and space, reconstructing the biogeography of taxa. Regarding conservationist approaches, it was applied in order to identify priority conservation areas. The panbiogeographical method consists basically of plotting locality records of different taxa on maps and connecting them using lines following a criterion of minimum distance, resulting in the so-called individual tracks, which were plotted on maps of biomes of Central America and South America from the ArcView GIS 3.2. The individual tracks are superimposed and the coincidence of them corresponds to generalized tracks, indicating a common history, that is, the existence of an ancestral biota widespread in the past and later fragmented by vicariant events. The intersection of two or more generalized tracks corresponds to a biogeographic node, which represents composite and complex areas, implying that different ancestral biotas interrelated, possibly in different geologic times. The analysis was carried out with the aid of the software ArcView v3.2 and the Trazos2004 extension. From the overlapping of the 24 individual tracks, five generalized tracks (GTs) were recognized: GT1, Mesoamerican/Chocó, composed by Mazama pandora, M. temama and Tapirus bairdii; GT2, Northern Andes (Mazama rufina, Pudu mephistophiles and Tapirus pinchaque); GT 3, Central Andes (Hippocamelus antisensis, Lama guanicoe, Mazama chunyi and Vicugna vicugna); GT4, Chilean Patagonia (Hippocamelus bisulcus and Pudu puda); GT5, Chaco/Center-West Brazil (Blastocerus dichotomus, Catagonus wagneri and Ozotocerus bezoarticus); and a biogeographic node in Antioquia, northwestern Colombia. The species Mazama americana, M. bricenii, M. goazoubira, M. nana, Tapirus terrestris, Tayassu pecari and T. tajacu did not participate in the composition of any generalized track. The distribution patterns formed from the generalized tracks indicate that living ungulates were fragmented and differentiated in the Pleistocene, related to historical events in Neotropical region, South American Transition Zone and Andean region, explained by movements in Tectonic Fault Zones of Central America and South America, by volcanism and climate change. The formation of the Altiplano-Puna plateau seemed to be a geographic barrier in past and present times for most of the South American biota, except for camelids, which inhabit these areas in Argentina, western Bolivia and southeastern Peru. The biogeographic node confirmed the presence of biotic components of different origins, being an area with great biological diversity and endemicity, therefore suggesting a conservation unit in northwestern South America.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Os ungulados viventes (Cetartiodactyla e Perissodactyla), nas regiões estudadas, são representados por 11 gêneros e 24 espécies. O presente estudo propõe reconhecer os padrões de distribuição destas espécies, a partir da aplicação do método pan-biogeográfico de análise de traços. Este método auxilia no entendimento a priori dos padrões congruentes de distribuição e numa compreensão de padrões e processos de diferenciação geográfica no tempo e no espaço, reconstruindo a biogeografia de táxons. Em relação a aspectos conservacionistas, o método foi aplicado na identificação de áreas prioritárias para conservação. A aplicação do método consiste basicamente na marcação das localidades de ocorrência dos diferentes táxons em mapas, sendo estas localidades conectadas por intermédio de linhas seguindo um critério de mínima distância, resultando nos chamados traços individuais que foram plotados nos mapas de biomas da América Central e do Sul do programa ArcView GIS 3.2. A superposição destes traços individuais define um traço generalizado, sugerindo uma história comum, ou seja, a preexistência de uma biota ancestral subsequentemente fragmentada por eventos vicariantes. A interseção de dois ou mais traços generalizados corresponde a um nó biogeográfico, que representa áreas compostas e complexas, nas quais se agrupam distintas histórias biogeográficas. Para a análise pan-biogeográfica foi utilizado o software ArcView GIS 3.2 e a extensão Trazos 2004. A partir da superposição dos 24 traços individuais, foram reconhecidos cinco traços generalizados (TGs): TG1, Mesoamericano/Chocó, composto por Mazama pandora, M. temama e Tapirus bairdii; TG2, Andes do Norte (Mazama rufina, Pudu mephistophiles e Tapirus pinchaque); TG 3, Andes Centrais (Hippocamelus antisensis, Lama guanicoe, Mazama chunyi e Vicugna vicugna) ; TG4, Patagônia chilena (Hippocamelus bisulcus e Pudu puda).; TG5, Chaco/Centro oeste do Brasil (Blastocerus dichotomus, Catagonus wagneri e Ozotocerus bezoarticus); e um nó biogeográfico em Antioquia no noroeste da Colômbia. As espécies Mazama americana, M.bricenii, M.goazoubira, M.nana, Tapirus terrestris, Tayassu pecari e T. tajacu não participaram de nenhum dos traços generalizados. Os padrões de distribuição formados a partir dos traços generalizados indicam que os ungulados viventes sofreram uma fragmentação e diferenciação no Pleistoceno, relacionadas a eventos históricos ocorridos na região Neotropical, na Zona de Transição Sul-americana e na região Andina, explicados pelos movimentos ocorridos nas Zonas de Falhas Tectônicas da América Central e do Sul, por vulcanismo e pelas mudanças climáticas. A formação do platô Altiplano-Puna revelou ser uma barreira geográfica, tanto em tempos pretéritos como em tempos atuais, para a maioria da biota sul-americana, com exceção dos camelídeos, que habitam estas áreas da Argentina, do oeste da Bolívia e sudoeste do Peru. O nó biogeográfico confirmou a presença de componentes bióticos de diferentes origens, constituindo uma área com grande diversidade biológica e endêmica, sugerindo assim uma unidade de conservação no noroeste da América do Sul. / The living ungulates (Cetartiodactyla and Perissodactyla) are represented in the studied regions by 11 genera and 24 species. This study proposes to recognize the distribution patterns of these species, using the panbiogeographical method of track analysis. This method is a useful tool in a priori understanding of the congruent distribution patterns and in the knowledge of patterns and processes of geographical differentiation in time and space, reconstructing the biogeography of taxa. Regarding conservationist approaches, it was applied in order to identify priority conservation areas. The panbiogeographical method consists basically of plotting locality records of different taxa on maps and connecting them using lines following a criterion of minimum distance, resulting in the so-called individual tracks, which were plotted on maps of biomes of Central America and South America from the ArcView GIS 3.2. The individual tracks are superimposed and the coincidence of them corresponds to generalized tracks, indicating a common history, that is, the existence of an ancestral biota widespread in the past and later fragmented by vicariant events. The intersection of two or more generalized tracks corresponds to a biogeographic node, which represents composite and complex areas, implying that different ancestral biotas interrelated, possibly in different geologic times. The analysis was carried out with the aid of the software ArcView v3.2 and the Trazos2004 extension. From the overlapping of the 24 individual tracks, five generalized tracks (GTs) were recognized: GT1, Mesoamerican/Chocó, composed by Mazama pandora, M. temama and Tapirus bairdii; GT2, Northern Andes (Mazama rufina, Pudu mephistophiles and Tapirus pinchaque); GT 3, Central Andes (Hippocamelus antisensis, Lama guanicoe, Mazama chunyi and Vicugna vicugna); GT4, Chilean Patagonia (Hippocamelus bisulcus and Pudu puda); GT5, Chaco/Center-West Brazil (Blastocerus dichotomus, Catagonus wagneri and Ozotocerus bezoarticus); and a biogeographic node in Antioquia, northwestern Colombia. The species Mazama americana, M. bricenii, M. goazoubira, M. nana, Tapirus terrestris, Tayassu pecari and T. tajacu did not participate in the composition of any generalized track. The distribution patterns formed from the generalized tracks indicate that living ungulates were fragmented and differentiated in the Pleistocene, related to historical events in Neotropical region, South American Transition Zone and Andean region, explained by movements in Tectonic Fault Zones of Central America and South America, by volcanism and climate change. The formation of the Altiplano-Puna plateau seemed to be a geographic barrier in past and present times for most of the South American biota, except for camelids, which inhabit these areas in Argentina, western Bolivia and southeastern Peru. The biogeographic node confirmed the presence of biotic components of different origins, being an area with great biological diversity and endemicity, therefore suggesting a conservation unit in northwestern South America.

Animals affect vegetation in many different ways. In this thesis we have focused on the impact of wild ungulates in the Czech Republic (wild boar, red deer, sika deer, roe deer). These animals affect vegetation with grazing, defoliation, defecation, browsing and other activities. We decided to study the effect of browsing. The animal trails are formed by browsing animals. These trails can be easily recognized due to long-term browsing. They are especially caused by trampling, which affects vegetation in many ways. The aim of this study is to determine how the vegetation of dry-grasslands (Festuco-Brometea) responds to long-term trampling caused by wild ungulates. We found that on trails, there is more bare soil, less litter and lower vegetation. In its close proximity, there is also a slightly greater diversity of plants than in control samples. Species like Plantago media which are growing straight on the trail, have adapted to trampling, while smaller shrubs (eg. Rubus, Crataegus), start to appear 2 meters from the trail. Using Ellenberg values, we found out that heliophile species, which grow on the trails and the species in control samples need more moisture and more nitrogen. Using the experiment with transplanted blocks, we learned how vegetation responds to the introduction/exclusion of...