Magister Philosophiae - MPhil / The issue of migrants’ access to drinkable water is a developmental issue. From a fundamental research view point, this study aims to explore the circumstances in which migrants access water across metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas of South Africa. The study examines the inequalities that may arise in the context of piped water access, different water sources, other alternative water, reliability of water, and closely related issues focusing specifically on internal migrants in general. The study focuses on demographic characteristics such as age, gender, education, employment status, level of income, duration of residence, province of residence and ethnic groups. Bringing together the demographic variables and water related variables, the study captures the determinants of water access by comparing metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas. Using the 2011 Census secondary data requested from Statistics South Africa, cross tabulation and bivariate statistical analysis by means of SPSS software was performed.

Abstract The purpose of this research is to examine if female interests have been included in different levels of water governance in Cuamba municipality, Mozambique in order to understand if gender equality and women empowerment is being addressed at the grassroots level. In Sub-Saharan Africa women generally have the responsibility of fetching water and are therefore directly affected by the quality and accessibility of water and sanitation services. Though gender mainstreaming and policies addressing gender equality has been adopted in Mozambique, the actual difference that these measures have made to the lives of women in Mozambique is questionable.  A qualitative single case study has been conducted, by interviewing government institutions, the private sector and civil society actors at district and municipality level in Cuamba. The findings reveal that it is the municipality government, FIPAG and the traditional leaders that are the main actors with the power over the distribution of water in Cuamba and through a joint effort the water situation has improved a lot in recent years. The interest in water among women was mainly focused to having a water source while the main interests among men was to have a shorter distance as well as shorter queues to the water source. An abductive method of the analytical framework consisting of four dimensions of water governance and rethinking em(power)ment, gender and development has been used to guide the analysis of the findings in a more comprehensive manner thus investigating the power structures in each dimension of water governance with a focus on women empowerment. The result indicates that women living in the urban areas were more empowered in all notions of power due to better access to information and education thus giving them more time and individual knowledge to collectively and individually demand power over the distribution of water. Due to lack of empowerment among women living in the rural areas, these women demanded less regarding the distribution of water and had less individual understanding of water governance. Furthermore the interests among women living in the rural areas were mostly included in the decision-making processes as it generally concerned having access to a clean water source. As the women in the urban areas demanded more and had more interests in water governance it became clear that the female interests in the urban areas were not included in decision-making. By including more women in decision-making bodies in water governance and putting more emphasis on education for women these issues could be addressed.

A transformação da paisagem das áreas de mananciais vem sendo influenciada decisivamente pelas dinâmicas urbanas que nela incidem e pelas políticas públicas responsáveis pela sua proteção e recuperação. O presente trabalho objetiva analisar os conflitos e os desafios na gestão da Bacia Hidrográfica do Guarapiranga, uma área de extrema importância para a Região Metropolitana de São Paulo, responsável pelo fornecimento de água para aproximadamente quatro milhões de habitantes. A análise foi realizada à luz do reformulado aparato normativo e institucional proposto pela \"Nova Política Estadual de Proteção e Recuperação aos Mananciais\" (Lei n° 9.866/97), incluindo a legislação específica que hoje estabelece as diretrizes, normas e padrões de ocupação na Bacia do Guarapiranga (Lei n° 12.233/06). Além disso, foram avaliadas as transformações que ocorrem na Bacia, obtendo-se informações (históricas e atuais) sobre: o crescimento urbano e populacional, infraestrutura de saneamento, qualidade da água e obras na região. Complementarmente, foram utilizados diálogos realizados com interlocutores atuantes na área, revelando aspectos não apreendidos apenas com a pesquisa bibliográfica e documental. Os resultados indicaram que, embora a proposta normativa atual represente um avanço em termos de instrumentos para efetivar os objetivos almejados, ainda enfrenta desafios de ordem institucional e operacional. Verificou-se a necessidade de fortalecimento dos vínculos entre os entes do sistema de gerenciamento de recursos hídricos e insuficientes condições para um envolvimento mais profundo dos atores. Com isso, vários conflitos se revelam, desde o crescimento urbano e populacional em áreas planejadas para coibir a expansão urbana; qualidade da água aquém da situação ideal, relacionada à presença de esgotos domésticos e outros tipos de efluentes; e as grandes obras de infraestrutura públicas e privadas, que geram efeitos às vezes contrários à necessidade de preservação do manancial. A análise do futuro da área ainda aponta para grandes transformações, dado o enorme conjunto de fatores que incidem na área e por ser uma das poucas que ainda restam para absorver a expansão urbana e os interesses de diferentes grupos sociais na luta pela apropriação da terra e pela proteção dos mananciais. Para concretizar o futuro desejável da área de estudo deve ser prioridade o planejamento integrado; projetos contínuos e de longo prazo; cooperação intergovernamental; compromisso e vontade política; priorização de ações preventivas ao invés de corretivas; inclusão da população em processos educativos e participantes em torno da problemática apresentada; e, sobretudo, permear melhor as informações que são para a gestão, para o entendimento e para o fortalecimento das políticas públicas. / Landscape of water source areas has been changed by urban dynamics and public polices for protection and recovery of water resources. This work aims to analyze conflicts and challenges for management of Guarapiranga Watershed, an extremely important water source area of Metropolitan Region of Sao Paulo, which supplies 4 million people. In order to understand the transformations of landscape in Guarapiranga Watershed the new State Policy for Protection and Recovery of Water Source Areas (Law 9,866/97) was analyzed, including specific legislation which nowadays establishes rules and guidelines for land use in Guarapiranga Watershed (Law 12,233/06). Additionally, were selected some essential information: urban and population growth in protected areas, water quality and interventions in the region. Also people who live and work there were interviewed to improve the knowledge of problems. The results showed that, despite current legislation represents a progress in proceedings and regulatory instruments, technical and operational challenges persist. It was found that it is necessary strengthen the relation between the members of the Water Resources of Planning and Management System. In this context, several conflicts are observed, like urban and population growth in protected areas, unsatisfactory water quality; and interventions (public and private), which sometimes conflict with needs of water source protection. The analysis of the future of landscape still points to major changes, due the huge number of factors that affect the area and for being one of the few regions that is able to absorb the urban expansion and the interests of different social groups in the struggle for the appropriation of land and the protection of water sources. To achieve the desirable future for the area, it should be priority integrated planning, ongoing projects and long-term intergovernmental cooperation, preventive actions, and, above all, better communication that is for management, for understanding and for the strengthening of public policies.

A transformação da paisagem das áreas de mananciais vem sendo influenciada decisivamente pelas dinâmicas urbanas que nela incidem e pelas políticas públicas responsáveis pela sua proteção e recuperação. O presente trabalho objetiva analisar os conflitos e os desafios na gestão da Bacia Hidrográfica do Guarapiranga, uma área de extrema importância para a Região Metropolitana de São Paulo, responsável pelo fornecimento de água para aproximadamente quatro milhões de habitantes. A análise foi realizada à luz do reformulado aparato normativo e institucional proposto pela \"Nova Política Estadual de Proteção e Recuperação aos Mananciais\" (Lei n° 9.866/97), incluindo a legislação específica que hoje estabelece as diretrizes, normas e padrões de ocupação na Bacia do Guarapiranga (Lei n° 12.233/06). Além disso, foram avaliadas as transformações que ocorrem na Bacia, obtendo-se informações (históricas e atuais) sobre: o crescimento urbano e populacional, infraestrutura de saneamento, qualidade da água e obras na região. Complementarmente, foram utilizados diálogos realizados com interlocutores atuantes na área, revelando aspectos não apreendidos apenas com a pesquisa bibliográfica e documental. Os resultados indicaram que, embora a proposta normativa atual represente um avanço em termos de instrumentos para efetivar os objetivos almejados, ainda enfrenta desafios de ordem institucional e operacional. Verificou-se a necessidade de fortalecimento dos vínculos entre os entes do sistema de gerenciamento de recursos hídricos e insuficientes condições para um envolvimento mais profundo dos atores. Com isso, vários conflitos se revelam, desde o crescimento urbano e populacional em áreas planejadas para coibir a expansão urbana; qualidade da água aquém da situação ideal, relacionada à presença de esgotos domésticos e outros tipos de efluentes; e as grandes obras de infraestrutura públicas e privadas, que geram efeitos às vezes contrários à necessidade de preservação do manancial. A análise do futuro da área ainda aponta para grandes transformações, dado o enorme conjunto de fatores que incidem na área e por ser uma das poucas que ainda restam para absorver a expansão urbana e os interesses de diferentes grupos sociais na luta pela apropriação da terra e pela proteção dos mananciais. Para concretizar o futuro desejável da área de estudo deve ser prioridade o planejamento integrado; projetos contínuos e de longo prazo; cooperação intergovernamental; compromisso e vontade política; priorização de ações preventivas ao invés de corretivas; inclusão da população em processos educativos e participantes em torno da problemática apresentada; e, sobretudo, permear melhor as informações que são para a gestão, para o entendimento e para o fortalecimento das políticas públicas. / Landscape of water source areas has been changed by urban dynamics and public polices for protection and recovery of water resources. This work aims to analyze conflicts and challenges for management of Guarapiranga Watershed, an extremely important water source area of Metropolitan Region of Sao Paulo, which supplies 4 million people. In order to understand the transformations of landscape in Guarapiranga Watershed the new State Policy for Protection and Recovery of Water Source Areas (Law 9,866/97) was analyzed, including specific legislation which nowadays establishes rules and guidelines for land use in Guarapiranga Watershed (Law 12,233/06). Additionally, were selected some essential information: urban and population growth in protected areas, water quality and interventions in the region. Also people who live and work there were interviewed to improve the knowledge of problems. The results showed that, despite current legislation represents a progress in proceedings and regulatory instruments, technical and operational challenges persist. It was found that it is necessary strengthen the relation between the members of the Water Resources of Planning and Management System. In this context, several conflicts are observed, like urban and population growth in protected areas, unsatisfactory water quality; and interventions (public and private), which sometimes conflict with needs of water source protection. The analysis of the future of landscape still points to major changes, due the huge number of factors that affect the area and for being one of the few regions that is able to absorb the urban expansion and the interests of different social groups in the struggle for the appropriation of land and the protection of water sources. To achieve the desirable future for the area, it should be priority integrated planning, ongoing projects and long-term intergovernmental cooperation, preventive actions, and, above all, better communication that is for management, for understanding and for the strengthening of public policies.

Risk-based sampling program of microorganisms in the water source in northern Sweden After several disease outbreaks caused by parasites in the drinking water during the last years, it is more essential than ever to insure that the water supply companies have enough barriers to counteract the presence of microorganisms in the outgoing water. It is also discussed whether climate changes such as increased precipitation can have a connection to the increased cases of parasites in water sources. The water source at Gäddvik is Luleå municipality’s largest and provides drinking water to 64 500 of Luleå’s 74 000 inhabitants. The investigation of microorganisms in the water source, especially in the Lule River has not been as prioritized as the sampling of chemical parameters. Therefore a risk-based sampling program of microorganisms has been established. After analyzing former tests both on the Lule River and the wells at the water supply companies, and observing the precipitation variability over the last 40 years, a sampling program was developed. Analyzes of the chemical parameters from the river have not revealed any significant changes during the sampling time. The precipitation has shown an increasing trend over the past 40 years. The sampling program was divided into three groups containing the parasites Cryptosporidium and Giardia, some indicator organisms (Escherichia coli, coliforms and Clostridium perfringens) and phytoplankton. The infiltration time during the artificial recharge is too short and therefore it is necessary to expand the Standard control for microorganism in the wells (from 12 to 24 samples). The sampling frequency for parasites should be higher during days with heavily rainfall and during the spring flood.

This thesis is to study the feasibility of using river water from Gavleån in the cooling system of University of Gävle. The project is proposed by the campus service manager Akademiska Hus AB which intended to replace the current cooling production system with the water cooling system to reduce the electricity cost in cooling production. The river by direct distance is 600 meters from the university, the river water is to be extracted from the river via a pump house, flow through pipeline buried underground and delivered to the equipment house of Akademiska Hus.   Most water source cooling prefer water body with decent depth which contain low temperature water to use as free cooling source, but the issue that limits the practice is, the decent depth is not a very common feature of most water body near or within urban area. Like Gavleån which has an average depth of not over five meters while the sufficient depth is over 50 meters for the least or 70 meters to 100 meters often. So study the potential of using rather high temperature water from shallow water body can be of high interest for most cooling consumers.   The thesis progressed through the work in five parts. To introduce cooling in general starting with literature review, the concept, the mechanism, the device for end use and production, the demand of cooling and the reason behind it. Followed by case studies of water source cooling projects worldwide, which is mostly deep water source cooling, and another case of the local hospital cooling system that extract water from Gavleån, demonstrate the use of shallow water body in assisting cooling production, it gives some insights how the potential if similar system is to be implemented in the campus, which is mounted on the same river. Several tours to the hospital were taken to acquire data and understanding of the system.   Then the water temperature measurement from Gavleån in 2014 summer is presented. The measurement was carried out at a small dock by the river side during July to September of 2014. The measurements show the temperature of river water has been increasing which limits free cooling throughout the year, additional refrigerator is required to produce chilled water. The river water, in the hot seasons is used as cooler for the refrigerator and in cold season can be used for free cooling directly. Simulation of IDA-ICE gives the cooling demand of modelled building blocks, the output of cooling production season (consistent with the hot seasons) matches the cooling consumption data from Akademiska Hus by an error of 1% (414743 kWh of simulated result to 415270 kWh in documentation of Akademiska Hus).   To meet the demand of cooling and select more cost-effective refrigerator type, consumption and COP (COP: Coefficient of Performance) are calculated for compressor chiller and absorption chiller with basic cooling cycle for both. The results shown compressor chiller has much better performance but also higher consumption in electricity, while absorption chiller has rather low COP value in comparison but the need of energy input is much less given by its major consumption of energy is heat from hot water, already a purchased item by the university from district heating network. Cost-effectiveness wise speaking absorption chiller is a more optional choice. Reasonable values of assumption are largely employed in the calculation to select the better candidate and bring certain errors, which is then exam in sensitivity analysis to weigh the alternative parameter and the outcome from it.   The last part is to estimate the cost of chillers and pipeline, for the concern of minimizing errors due to uncertainty the operation cost, labor cost and future energy price are not included. As the calculation turns out the payback year of the new system can range from 7 to 12 years by different refrigerator setup and pipeline routine design, which is considered within the life time of the chiller and pipeline, also lower than the current cooling cost of the university and therefore concluded as promising investment.   Discussion and conclusion exam and finalize the whole thesis work. For the uncertainties of the calculation, the lack of information and data, which are improvements, can be done in future work. Also the improvements in other perspectives noted in terms of better load management for the cooling production units so the cost of equipment can be reduced, changes in building attachment and cooling device to reduce the demand of cooling, etc. But mostly draw the conclusion that with proper system configuration shallow water body can be helpful in reducing cooling consumption, and be a promising option for cities that have access to such water body.

No description available.

No description available.

Thesis (M.Sc.(Chemistry)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / Rivers provide the main water sources for domestic, industrial, and irrigational purposes; however, they could be polluted by receiving wastes from municipal and industrial sources as well as runoff from agricultural land. This could leave rivers contaminated with chromium (Cr) and other potentially toxic elements. Chromium can be either essential or carcinogenic depending on the chemical form. The aim of this study was to assess and quantify trivalent Cr [Cr(III)] and hexavalent Cr [Cr(VI)] in water and sediment samples, collected from Mokolo and Blood Rivers in the Limpopo province. Water and sediment samples were collected from ten sampling sites from each river. Microwave assisted acid digestion and microwave assisted extraction methods were used to obtain a simple, rapid and safe method for the determination of total Cr and Cr(VI) in sediments. Water samples were acidified with ultra-pure HNO3 and analysed directly to quantify total Cr. The accuracy of the method was evaluated by employing a sediment standard reference material (SRM 8704) and trace elements in water reference material (SRM 1643f). Total Cr and Cr(VI) in water and sediment samples were quantified using flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) and graphite furnace-atomic absorption spectrometry (GF-AAS). The Cr concentrations in water and sediment samples collected from Blood River were found in the range 1.56 to 6.11 μg/L and 129.2 to 252.9 μg/g, respectively. The concentrations of Cr in water and sediment samples obtained from Mokolo River ranged from 1.34 to 3.53 µg/L and 25.7 to 156.4 μg/g, respectively. A new solid phase extraction method was developed using chromabond-NH2 column to determine Cr(VI) in water. In order to achieve separation of Cr(VI), the sample was pre-concentrated and passed through a conditioned chromabond-NH2 column at a flow rate of 3 mL/min. Hexavalent Cr was selectively adsorbed onto the column and the contents were dried under vacuum. The retained Cr(VI) was subsequently eluted with two column volumes of 2 M HNO3 and diluted to a final volume of 10.0 mL. The limit of detection was 0.105 µg/L and the relative standard deviations were less than 2%. The validation of the procedure was performed by spiking standard solutions containing Cr(III) and Cr(VI) and the percentage recoveries were higher than 88%. The concentrations of Cr(VI) in BloHexavalent Cr in sediment samples was determined by employing leaching reagents of 0.1 M Na2CO3 and 0.01 M Na3PO4. Determination of Cr(VI) by using 0.1 M Na2CO3 as leaching reagent followed by atomic spectrometric measurements provided satisfactory results with percentage recoveries of 94.9 to 105%. This was achieved by extracting the sediment–reagent solution mixture for a period of 15 min at maximum pressure and temperature of 700 psi and 120 ºC, respectively. The leached Cr(VI) was then quantified by GF-AAS after filtration of the sample solutions through a hydrophilic Millipore PVDF 0.45 µm filter. The quantified levels of Cr(VI) leached by 0.1 M Na2CO3 in sediment samples of Blood and Mokolo Rivers were in the range 0.41 to 1.32 μg/g and 0.17 to 0.82 μg/g, respectively. The concentrations of Cr(VI) obtained employing the leaching reagent of 0.01 M Na3PO4 were found to be below LOD value of 0.06 µg/g in Mokolo River in all the sites and were in the range of 0.07 to 0.09 µg/g in Blood River. The low values of Cr(VI) in water and sediments show that Cr(III) did not oxidise to Cr(VI) during sample preparation. In Blood and Mokolo Rivers, although the concentrations of Cr(VI) are low, their values suggest a link with the industrial and agricultural activities in the area. od and Mokolo Rivers ranged from 0.13 to 1.99 µg/L and 0.13 to 0.55 µg/L, respectively / National Research Foundation (NRF) and , the Sasol Inzalo Foundation

Sveriges miljömål och FN:s globala miljömål pekar båda på att en god vattenkvalité samt ett hållbart uttag av sötvatten är önskvärt. När allt fler människor flyttar ut permanent till skärgården så ökar också uttaget av grundvatten, speciellt under sommarhalvåret då även sommargäster är på besök. Runmarö är en ö i Värmdö skärgård, där det i nuläget endast finns enskilda brunnar och avlopp. Runmarö är mer beroende av sitt grundvatten än fastlandet och om en grundvattenbrist uppstår drabbas de med enskilda brunnar hårdast.  Ett alternativ till grundvattnet är eventuellt ytvatten från någon av öns insjöar. Den största sjön är belägen på södra delen av ön och heter Viträsket. Det är mer lämpligt att använda sjövatten under sommarhalvåret, då vattenledningarna blir negativt påverkade av frost under vinterhalvåret. I denna studie undersöks det huruvida sjövatten kan användas som vattentäkt på Runmarö samt om sjön Viträsket är lämpligt som vattentäkt. För att använda sjövatten på ön så är det en förutsättning att de boende ingår i en gemensamhetsanläggning.  Genom litteraturstudier bildades en uppfattning kring de rådande förutsättningarna på ön samt vad som kunde studeras vidare på. En fältstudie utfördes där boende på ön intervjuades kring den rådande vattensituationen på Runmarö samt deras tankar kring sjövatten och gemensamt VA. Hos de intervjuade togs även vattenprover på dricksvattnet från vattenkranen. Ett vattenprov togs också från sjön Viträsket för att få en uppfattning kring dess vattenkvalité. Bo Olofsson och Erni Bergenstråhle bistod med befintlig brunnsdata från tidigare provtagningar från några av öns brunnar. Under fältstudien intervjuades även Bergenstråhle kring om det är rimligt med en omställning från enskilda brunnar till sjövatten på ön.  Om de vattenprover som samlades in från Viträsket och vattenkranarna hade en högre halt av ett ämne, än vad Livsmedelsverket rekommenderar, så anses det tjänligt men med anmärkning. Av de provresultat som erhölls var endast två stycken tjänliga, övriga var tjänliga med anmärkning, där även Viträsket är inkluderat på grund av dess höga halt av odlingsbara mikroorganismer. Dessa mikroorganismer är ej lämpliga att konsumera under en längre tid.  Utifrån de intervjuer som genomförts verkar de boende öppna för att ansluta sig till en gemensamhetsanläggning, dock ser de gärna att någon annan driver frågan. Ett alternativ kan vara Runmarös intresseförening som dels har hand om infrastrukturfrågor på ön. Sjövattnet från Viträsket skulle kunna användas till funktioner som tvättmaskin, diskmaskin, dusch och toalett samt bevattning utan att renas. För att användas som dricksvatten måste det renas och kylas ner, annars kan det påverka individens hälsa negativt. Ur ett tekniskt perspektiv är det mer rimligt att de boende runtomkring Viträsket använder dess vatten. Vidare är det även viktigt att se över hur vattenledningar från sjön påverkar djur och natur i området. Det behövs dessutom räknas på hur många hushåll som Viträsket kan förse med vatten. / According to the UN and Sweden’s environmental objectives it is important to attain a high water quality and a sustainable use of freshwater. More and more people are currently moving out to the archipelago, which increases the use of freshwater on the islands, especially during summer when guests tend to visit as well. Runmarö is an island in Värmdö archipelago where the residents currently only have individual wells and sewage systems. Runmarö is more vulnerable to disruption of the freshwater, compared to the mainland, and if a groundwater shortage were to happen during the summer, it would be a big concern.  Using the surface water from one of the island’s lakes could be an alternative to the use of water. The largest lake on the island is named Viträsket and is located on the southern part of Runmarö. Since cold temperatures might affect the water pipes negatively, it is more appropriate to use the seawater from the lake during the summer. In this report it is examined whether seawater can be used as a water supply on Runmarö and if Viträsket is an appropriate water source. For the seawater to be used on the island, the residents will have to form a community facility.  Literature studies were conducted to understand the prerequisites on the island and what further investigations could be carried out in this report. A field study was also carried out on the island where residents were interviewed about Runmarö’s current water situation and their thoughts about seawater and community facilities. The tap water was also tested at the interviewee’s homes. A test from Viträsket was collected as well to get a grip of its water quality. Bo Olofsson and Erni Bergenstråhle contributed with existing data of different wells on Runmarö. During the field study, Bergenstråhle was also interviewed about whether it is reasonable to use community facilities and seawater on Runmarö.  If the water samples collected from Viträsket and the water taps has a higher percentage than Livsmedelsverket recommends for a certain substance, it could be possible to drink the water, but one should be observant. Only two of the tap water tests had a percentage lower than Livsmedelsverket’s limits. The other tests had at least one substance that exceeded the limit. Lake Viträsket had a high percentage of culturable microbes that exceeded Livsmedelsverket’s limit. These microbes are not suitable to consume over a longer period of time.  The interviewed residents were all open to join a community facility, they do however prefer it if someone else brings up the question and organizes the start of the process. Runmarö’s interest group handles the infrastructure issue on the island among other things. They might therefore be able to organize the process of creating and building a community facility. The seawater from Viträsket can be used for things such as the laundry machine, dishwasher, shower, toilet and irrigation without further cleaning. To be used as drinking water, it needs to be cleaned and cooled down, otherwise it might affect a person’s health negatively. From a technical point of view, it is more reasonable for the residents living close to Viträsket to use the seawater from Viträsket. Also, it is important to investigate how the water pipes would affect the wildlife around Viträsket. Furthermore, calculations on how much water Viträsket can supply and how many households that can use Viträsket as a source of water needs to be conducted.