Food security continues to be an area of concern worldwide. In Canada, our ability to feed ourselves has diminished significantly and on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, we produce less than 5% of the food we consume. A number of factors have influenced this decline including the globalization of food systems and an increase in regulations. Cities have an opportunity by way of by-laws to increase local food security. In this case study, The City of Colwood has little functional agricultural land but a significant opportunity to expand its urban agriculture activities. Although the community supports such initiatives, the local government has not yet implemented supportive policies and by-laws. This municipal government has the ability to increase local food security through the use of its legislative abilities.

This paper considers the contribution of urban agriculture to the local food system and the role of the city council in this system. Using an interdisciplinary mixed method approach, the study explores local stakeholders’ perspectives of these aspects in the city of Bristol, UK. The findings were viewed through the lenses of two conceptual frameworks, resilience and social justice. The results reveal that urban agriculture increases resilience through building community, maintaining a diverse food supply network, and strengthening adaptability by retaining the knowledge and skills to produce food. Urban agriculture also supports social justice, by providing access to healthy food, promoting equality and inclusion, and encouraging healthier living through education. Furthermore, the results indicate that the city council can increase resilience and support social justice in the local food system through four key interventions; their procurement policy, urban planning, assisting urban agriculture initiatives, and developing a holistic urban food policy. In conclusion, urban agriculture is regarded as more than a form of food production because local stakeholders use it to support a broad range of social objectives. Developing an urban food policy is the shared responsibility of the city council as well as private and voluntary sector actors. Resilience and social justice are advocated as normative goals of the food system, and can be used as frameworks to guide the complex process of urban food system reform.

The aim of the study was to find out whether or not engagement in urban agriculture for individuals and households is a response to a lack of formal wage employment in the post-apartheid period. This period is characterised by changes in the economy of South Africa which led to an observed increase in poverty and unemployment and an increase in informal employment. The study utilised both quantitative and qualitative methods to look at urban farming issues in KwaZulu-Natal. The quantitative data came from the KwaZulu-Natal Income Dynamics Surveys (KIDS), which carried out surveys in three waves spanning the period of democratic transition over a 10-year period in 1993, 1998 and 2004. This data was analysed using the statistical package STATA and employed regression modelling techniques to investigate the odds of engagement in urban agriculture, given certain individual and household characteristics, which is a particular nuance for this study. Because of its potential in food production and income generation, a smaller-scale qualitative farmer survey was undertaken in two different communities, comparing three different categories of home gardening, community gardening and market gardening in KwaZulu-Natal, using a semi-structured questionnaire. This component sought to document, in farmers’ own words, their experiences and practice of farming in an urban environment and gave in-depth insights about the motivation of the people involved, the types of food crops grown, and so on. Key informant interviews were conducted with a community of professionals for illuminating their perspectives on the practice of urban agriculture in KwaZulu-Natal. The key findings of the study are that urban agriculture is an activity that is undertaken by people seeking a survival strategy when their preferred activity (such as formal employment) is not available and it can be an activity undertaken by entrepreneurs for income generation. According to their main activity status, the types of people that engage in urban agriculture include those in wage employment and the unemployed, as well as the non-economically active. The contribution of agricultural income to total household income represents miniscule amounts, at an average of less than one percent. Regression modelling results, combining person level and household level variables, predicted more likely odds of farming for women, by a factor of 1.67. Increase in the number of years of education decreased the odds by 0.90 times. If a person lost employment, this increased their odds of engaging in urban agriculture by 1.23 times. People in the age group 36-46 years predicted the highest likelihood for participation in urban agriculture, by a factor of 2.54. Larger household size predicted odds more likely to engage while poor households also predicted odds more likely to engage, by a factor of 2.07 times. Urban agriculture is vastly heterogeneous and is undertaken by all income groups. It is a result of both push and pull factors. People engage in it neither as a survival strategy nor an entrepreneurial strategy only. It is, however, an activity in which the poor are disproportionately represented. The potential of urban agriculture to generate employment is linked to the nature of support received from government and non-governmental organisations. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

Urban agriculture is a common and permanent phenomenon across most African cities. The general trend in urban agriculture is that it is more pronounced among the poor urban households. Poor households often spend more than 60% of their income on food alone. It acts as coping mechanisms to urban poverty. The traditional view of urban agriculture is that it is a temporal activity which has no place in cities. These traditional views emerge from development policies which tried to tailor African countries’ economic development to follow western economic development models. The fact that urban agriculture has been prevalent in African cities before the advent of colonialism shows that instead of viewing it as temporal activity a socio-historical and socio-economic analysis of urban agriculture is necessary to understand the socio-economic mechanisms behind it. The major thrust of this research was to understand the logic behind practising farming in cities. Urban agriculture in this thesis is presented from urban farmers’ perspective. Using data collected and the literature review for this thesis I developed the Urban Livelihoods Coping Model (ULCM). This model acknowledges the fact that the socio-economic conditions and the socio-historical context of Zimbabwe was as a result of the influence of ‘western leaning’ development policies influenced by theoretical framework of modernisation and associated theories. A combination of these theories with cultural factors and the impact of Structural Adjustment Policies resulted in the present situation where urban agriculture plays a critical in the survival of the urban poor as a coping mechanism. The ULCM ascribes the emergence of urban agriculture to necessity, ability and opportunity. Necessity for food emanates from insufficient incomes to purchase food in cities. The ability comes in the form of farming skills transferred from the rural areas to urban areas as households migrate. Opportunity comes in the form of availability of land for cultivation. Increase in poverty in cities will subsequently result in an increase in urban agriculture. It is apparent that without urban agriculture in Glen Norah most of the families will find it difficult to survive. The significance of this study is that it will help in the socio-economic understanding of urban agriculture and how it can be factored into urban planning systems. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

The thesis presents an exploration into the relationship between food and planning in Helsinki and Stockholm. It looks at the top-down side of planning and the bottom-up side of urban gardening to investigate how food and urban gardening are taken into consideration in the official planning; how two urban gardening initiatives, Dodo's Kääntöpöytä and Trädgård på spåret, are involved in shaping their city; and what the relationship between the two sides is. The study is qualitative and uses case study approach, netnography, interviews, questionnaires, planning documents, and observation to answer the research questions. The literature review includes food systems and planning, urban agriculture, and planning theory on public participation, urban forms and sustainability. Urban food planning cannot be said to exist in either city yet, but Helsinki has a relatively recent strategy that aims to improve the food system and accommodate more urban gardening, and urban gardening is increasingly allowed in both cities. The gardening organisations, Dodo and Trädgård på spåret, are involved in planning in different ways, but both wish to promote urban gardening as a sustainable strategy. The relationship between the two sides is generally positive, and both initiatives are in line with their city's goal of becoming more sustainable.

Food production in urban areas has been conducted worldwide as a subsistence strategy and source of income. Recently, however, it is recognized that urban agriculture has the potential to contribute to the development of sustainable urban environments. This study examines the benefits of urban food production in North American cities, as well as focusing on some of the critical barriers to its widespread expansion and acceptance. It also explores the potential for contamination of produce from the ambient atmosphere in mid-sized urban centres. Through interviewing nine urban farmers and one urban planner, in the city of Victoria, British Columbia, I documented each producer’s knowledge of the benefits and limitations associated with urban food production. Each interviewee impressed upon me the numerous benefits that can be accrued through the practice of urban agriculture, but they also painted a picture of the struggles that urban farmers face. Issues identified included: a real and perceived risk of contamination, problems with land ownership and access, and lack of meaningful support for urban farmers. Although urban agriculture has been accepted in principle by the City of Victoria and other Canadian cities, there are many challenges that must be overcome for urban food production to truly produce a viable, sustained food system. A coordinated, comprehensive government policy for involvement in the urban food system is critical to effectively addressing urban food issues. Investigations of heavy metal levels in lettuce (Lactuca sativa) grown in sampling sites across an urban/rural gradient showed that atmospheric contamination by heavy metals is greatest at urban sites, but also affects residential and rural sites. Sampling site types included: a control area (rural farms and properties outside of Victoria); residential sites (yards in residential neighbourhoods in the City of Victoria); and, industrial/business sites (heavily trafficked and industrialized areas in downtown Victoria). Site types were intended to reflect areas perceived as safe, probably safe, and probably not safe, and were selected based on expert opinion and land use. Results indicate that caution should be exercised in growing leafy greens at downtown sites, and that growing food in most residential neighbourhoods and green spaces is typically no worse than growing greens in rural Victoria. In fact, due to the proximity of urban agriculture to the market, growing food locally eliminates the need for transportation and extra processing; reducing the extra exposure crops otherwise might face during these phases. Urban food production requires the support of communities and governments in order to contribute to both urban food security and urban sustainability. The City of Victoria has started on a path to ensuring that this food system receives the required support, but it requires concerted effort and action. Further research into urban food systems is necessary to ensure that urban food production is able to become a viable, sustained food system. / Graduate

The City of Victoria is experiencing increased food insecurity due to its location on Vancouver Island in British Columbia, and a lack of food production in the city. The practice of urban agriculture presents a potential solution, enhancing food security by localizing resources, while increasing access and participation with local food production. Based on urban agriculture land inventories (UALIs) conducted in Portland, Vancouver and Nanaimo, my research evaluates and develops site selection criteria specific to Victoria for conducting a community garden land inventory focused on identifying land for allotment and commons gardens. I also examine the underlying barriers or supports for allotting land to urban agriculture in Victoria. To generate site selection criteria and explore the barriers and supports, I conducted interviews with urban agriculture experts, including city planners; community garden activists, educators and individuals involved in non-profits, and urban producers engaged in urban food production. The site selection criteria were further assessed as primary criteria for their application in GIS or secondary criteria to be considered during site visits. The final primary site selection criteria were land use and type, water availability (within 6.8 m), proximity to density users (within 400 m), minimum size thresholds of 1189.2 m2 for allotment gardens and 139.4 m2 for commons gardens, and excluding buildings, heritage designations, and protected green space. The analysis of the primary criteria resulted in a map illustrating 248 potential sites for community gardens in Victoria, whereby 213 were only suitable for commons gardens and 35 were suitable for allotment or commons gardens due to the larger size threshold. Four of the resulting sites were ground-truthed using site visits, and had medium to high potential for community gardens. The site visits documented secondary criteria, including proximity to community hub or prominent location, sunlight, ecologically sensitive area, cedar trees, and pollinator habitat or vegetation. Highlights from the interviews included identifying the most influential factors to allotting land to urban agriculture: the perception and awareness of urban agriculture, the community, the politics of City Council and staff support, and the costs or financial supports associated with community gardens. Overall, this research provides a model for the decision making process behind establishing an UALI, and contributes to understanding the challenges to allotting land to agriculture in the urban environment. / Graduate / 0768 / 0473 / jsauter@uvic.ca

Urban agriculture (UA) is an increasingly popular land use concept emerging in industrialized nations of the world. Although the phenomenon of UA is a common and well-documented form of food production in developing nations of the global south as well as in North America historically, only a small but growing body of literature exists that discusses UA implementation practices in a North American context today. The purpose of this research was to determine what factors contribute to successful planning and implementation of UA in North American communities. The following questions were addressed: What factors contribute to successful planning and implementation of UA? What stakeholders were most and/or least enabling in achieving success? How do UA projects demonstrate success, and how can these factors be used as a guide for future implementations of agriculture in urban environments? Additionally, how could GIS be employed to aid in spatial decision support for UA planning? Two North American cases (one in Ontario, Canada, and one in Colorado, USA) were analyzed through open-ended, semi-structured interviews, observations, and other data sources. This study involved the researcher’s direct participation with a newly-formed community garden group and the Community Garden Council of Waterloo Region. Findings of this study demonstrate that successful UA planning and implementation is not only the result of several factors and multiple stakeholder involvement, but also that UA—to be successful—should comprise a socially relevant, economically resilient, and environmentally sound system of production.

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Toronto, 2004. / Adviser: Daniel Schugurensky.

Diss. Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniv., 2006.