Masters of Art research report prepared for the Department of Development Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, March 2017 / The current food system is contributing to the food insecurity of the urban poor. Local food systems and other food system alternatives benefit the urban poor in all four spheres in which the corporate food regime disadvantages them: accessibility, empowerment, sustainability and health. This research maps the overlap of poverty and types of agriculture in the City of Johannesburg to locate potential for urban farms to serve and benefit the urban poor. There are many areas where potential for food system alternatives is high, especially where smaller scale farms are growing vegetables in areas where there are many and mostly poor households concentrated over space. By engaging with farmers, from study areas in the City which meet at least some of these conditions, the research not only confirms that the potential identified in these areas is being realised and exceeded but suggests that the potential has been underestimated for all of the other areas of the municipality in which urban agriculture coexists with the urban poor. The combinations and variations of food system alternatives chosen by farmers, in the foodstuffs produced, nature of production and modes and channels of distribution, are evidence of the reciprocal influence of structure and their own agency. By reframing urban agriculture to recognize the diverse opportunities for farmers to do things differently, we can see that many are choosing to do so, and are thus making sustainably produced, healthy fresh produce locally available to the urban poor in ways that are accessible and empowering. / XL2018

Esta dissertação analisa algumas das hortas urbanas comunitárias da cidade de São Paulo. Trata-se de uma etnografia que explora as conexões, motivações e formas de ação desses agrupamentos autogeridos de voluntários que criam e mantêm espaços de plantio em áreas públicas. São tratadas de maneira mais detida três delas: a Horta das Corujas, no bairro da Vila Beatriz, a Horta do Centro Cultural São Paulo, no bairro Vergueiro e a Horta dos Ciclistas, na Avenida Paulista. A intenção dessa análise, no entanto, não é se ater a territórios fixos, e sim apreender os movimentos propiciados pela prática das hortas comunitárias na cidade. Dessa maneira, são aqui traçadas algumas das relações entre essas hortas e outras formas de agricultura urbana em São Paulo, os entrelaçamento e perspectivas de co-construções que emergem entre humanos e não humanos, além de suas relações com instâncias políticas formais. A interação entre as ações no espaço público, as técnicas e os ensinamentos de agroecologia propagados pelas hortas e a rede de trocas que opera entre elas expõe maneiras de se vincular à cidade que são permeadas por uma noção de política do cotidiano, a qual não se encontra apenas nas relações com o e do Estado. / This dissertation analyses some of the community urban gardens of São Paulo, SP. We have carried out an ethnography exploring the connections, motives and ways of action of those selfmanaged groups of volunteers, who create and keep cultivating spaces amidst public areas. We focus of three urban gardens: Horta das Corujas [Owls Garden], at Vila Beatriz neighborhood, the São Paulo Cultural Center Garden, at Vergueiro neighborhood; and Horta dos Ciclistas [Cyclers Garden], at Paulista Avenue. This analysis is not restrained, however, to fixed territories, but rather apprehends the movements engendered by community garden practices in the city. Thus, we trace some relations between those gardens and other forms of urban agriculture in São Paulo, their intertwining and the co-construction perspectives that emerges among humans and non-humans, as well as their relations with formal public agents. The interaction among actions performed in public spaces, the agroecology techniques and teachings, and their exchange network are embedded with a concept of everyday politics, practiced not only by or in face of the State.

No Brasil e no mundo, o fenômeno da urbanização nas últimas décadas tem ocasionado diversas mudanças no perfil demográfico, na qualidade de vida e no abastecimento alimentar das populações, além da grave crise ambiental instaurada nas grandes cidades. A agricultura urbana e periurbana de base agroecológica tem se apresentado como uma alternativa para o meio ambiente das cidades e para a saúde das populações urbanas, contribuindo com o desenvolvimento da biodiversidade; para o melhor aproveitamento dos espaços e dos resíduos; para o manejo adequado dos recursos de água e solo e para o fortalecimento da segurança alimentar e nutricional (SAN). O presente estudo investigou a experiência do Projeto Colhendo Sustentabilidade: Práticas Comunitárias de Segurança Alimentar e Agricultura Urbana (PCS), desenvolvido entre 2008 e 2011, no município de Embu das Artes, São Paulo, Brasil sob a ótica da Promoção da Saúde. As ações do projeto ocorreram em diversos espaços urbanos e equipamentos públicos do município. A pesquisa de caráter qualitativo contou com a realização de quatro oficinas de sistematização com atores sociais envolvidos: técnicos dos serviços públicos, participantes e equipe técnica do projeto; entrevista individual com informante-chave e análise documental. A intersetorialidade apresentou-se com um processo desafiador, sendo mais efetiva na base da pirâmide organizacional do poder público municipal. A busca por sustentabilidade foi identificada por meio de ações voltadas às questões econômica, ambiental e de continuidade e fortalecimento do próprio projeto. Verificou-se que projeto buscou fomentar a participação social, desenvolver habilidades pessoais e coletivas e reforçar a ação comunitária por meio do empoderamento comunitário. O processo educativo contribuiu para a formação de agentes multiplicadores em práticas sustentáveis e criação de espaços saudáveis. Os participantes relataram mudanças nos hábitos alimentares; descoberta de novas espécies comestíveis; acesso a uma alimentação diversificada e melhoria na saúde física e mental após envolvimento nas atividades nas hortas comunitárias. Verificou-se a potencialidade do PCS na elaboração de políticas públicas saudáveis intersetoriais, contribuindo para resultados mais efetivos de melhoria na qualidade de vida das populações, promovendo de forma mais ampla a saúde das pessoas / In Brazil and worldwide, the phenomenon of urbanization in recent decades has brought about several changes in demographic profiles, quality of life and human food supply, as well as the development of a serious environmental crisis in big cities. Agroecology-based urban and peri-urban agriculture has been presented as a fruitful solution for the affected urban environment and health of urban populations, contributing to the development of biodiversity, better utilization of space and waste, proper management of water and soil resources and the strengthening of food security and nutrition (FSN). This study investigated the experience of the project Harvesting Sustainability: Community Practices for Urban Agriculture and Food Security (Projeto Colhendo Sustentabilidade; PCS), developed between 2008 and 2011 in the town of Embu das Artes, Sao Paulo, Brazil, from the viewpoint of Health Promotion. Project actions took place in several urban spaces and muni cipal facilities intended for public use. The qualitative research included four systematization workshops, with technical team, public service technicians and community members as participant social actors, as well as individual interview with selection of key informant, and document analysis. Intersectoriality proved to be a challenging process, being more effective at the base of the organizational pyramid of the municipal government. The search for sustainability was identified through actions aimed at economic and environmental issues, and also those related to continuity and strengthening of the project itself. It was found that the project sought to promote social participation, development of personal and collective skills, and strengthening of community action through community empowerment. The educational process contributed to the training of multipliers through sustainable practices, and the creation of healthy spaces. Participants reported changes in eating habits, finding of new edible species, access to a diversified diet and improved physical and mental health after involvement in activities in the community gardens. The potential of the PCS was identified with respect to development of healthy intersectorial public policies, which contribute to more effective results on improved quality of human life, thus promoting human health in a broader sense

L’agriculture urbaine et périurbaines, bien que très pratiquée partout dans le monde est parfois mis en difficulté à travers l’utilisation de fertilisants nocifs. L’objectif général de cette thèse est de mener une étude du risque de la contamination du système sol-plante par les composés organométalliques du Pb Hg et Sn, dans un contexte d’agriculture urbaine caractérisé par l’utilisation des débris de combustion (DC) d’ordures ménagères issus des décharges urbaines, pour fertiliser les sols maraîchers. Dans cet objectif, les espèces Lactuca sativa, Amaranthus hybridus et Corchorus olitorius ont été cultivées sur des sols amendés par les DC, comme le font les agriculteurs in situ. Les sols amendés et non amendés ont été échantillonnés et les légumes ont été récoltés à quatre stades de leur croissance. Les métaux tels que le plomb (Pb), le mercure (Hg) et l’étain (Sn) ont été analysés sous leurs formes inorganiques et organiques par ICP-MS et GC-ICP-MS respectivement. Les résultats obtenus révèlent la présence du mono méthylmercure (MMeHg) dans les sols et dans les plantes avec des concentrations variant respectivement d’une valeur non détectée (nd) à 172 ng/g et de 7,8 ng/g à 34,7 ng/g. Le tétra éthyl Plomb (TEtPb) se révèle être le composé organoplombique (COP) le plus représenté dans les sols avec des concentrations variant de 18,4 ng/g à 44612 ng/g. Alors que c’est plutôt le mono éthyl plomb (MEtPb) qui est le COP le plus représenté dans les plantes, avec des concentrations variant de 0,78 ng/g à 56,9 ng/g. Les composés organostannique (COT) ont également été identifiés dans les sols et dans les plantes avec une prédominance du dibutyl étain (DBT) dans le sol, et du mono phényl étain (MPhT) dans la plante. Le suivi de l’accumulation de ces organométalliques par les plantes à différents stades de leur croissance, révèle globalement une diminution des quantités de polluants accumulées dans la plante entre le 1er stade de croissance et le stade de maturité. Les résultats des facteurs d’absorptions (Fa) ont mis en évidence le caractère phytodisponible des formes organométalliques dans le sol à l’exception du DBT. Ils ont aussi révélé les aptitudes hyper accumulatrices de A. hybridus et L. sativa vis-à-vis du TBT. Les résultats combinés des Fa, des facteurs de translocation et des rapports de mobilité entre le sol et les feuilles ont permis de mettre en évidence une translocation aisée ou facilitée des formes éthylées (TEtPb), butylées (TBT) et phénylées (MPhT) des racines vers les feuilles. Des trois espèces de plantes, C. olitorius se révèle être l’espèce la plus accumulatrice de MMeHg, de COP et COT. Mais au vue des doses d’expositions journalières (DEJ) à ces polluants toxiques par ingestion de ces légumes, c’est la consommation de L. sativa qui présente le plus grand danger pour le consommateur. D’ailleurs la consommation de ce légume donne une DEJ de MPhT qui est supérieure à la dose journalière admissible (DJA) des composés phénylées de l’étain. / Urban and suburban agriculture though widely practiced all over the world, sometimes faces difficulties due to the use of poor fertilizers. The objective of this thesis is to study the contamination risks of the soil-plant system by organometallic compounds (Pb, Hg and Sn), in a particular context of urban and suburban agriculture. To meet this goal, the species Lactuca sativa, Amaranthus hybridus and Corchorus olitorius were cultivated on soils amended with combustion debris (CD), like the farmers do in situ. The amended and non-amended soils are sampled and vegetables harvested at maturity on one hand, and at different stages of their growth on the other. The samples are treated, then the inorganic and organics forms of Pb, Hg and Sn are analyzed by ICP-MS and GC-ICP-MS respectively. The results obtained reveal the presence of mono methylmercury (MMeHg) in the soils and in the plants with concentrations respectively varying between nd to 171.567 ng/g and 7.83 ng/g to 34.72 ng/g. Tetra ethyl lead (TEtPb) is the most represented organo lead compounds (OLC) in the soils with concentrations ranging from 18.45 ng/g to 44611.959 ng/g respectively. Whereas in the plants, mono ethyl lead (MEtPb) is the most represented OLC with concentrations ranging from 0.78 ng/g to 56.90 ng/g. OTC were equally identified in the soils as well as in the plants with a predominance of dibutyl tin (DBT) in soil, and mono phenyltin (MPhT) in plants. Amongst the three plant species, C. olitorius turns out to be the species which accumulates MMeHg, OLC and OTC most. But in view of the of daily exposure doses (DED) to these toxic pollutants by ingestion of these vegetables, it is the consumption of L. sativa which presents the greatest danger. Moreover, consumption of this vegetable gives a DED of MPhT which is higher than its acceptable daily intake. The follow up of the accumulation of these organometallics by plants at different stages of their growth, revealed that the quantities of pollutants accumulated, decrease in the plant between first stage of growth and the maturity stage. The results of the absorption factors (Fa) have allowed to underline of phyto availability character of organometallics forms in soil, except for DBT. They have also revealed hyper accumulator abilities of A. hybridus and L. sativa for TBT. The combined results of Fa, translocation factor (Ft) and reports of mobility between the soil and the leaves (Rm (f/s)) have allowed to underline the facilitated translocation of ethylated (TEtPb), butylated (TBT) and phenylated (MPhT) forms, from the roots to the leaves.

No Brasil e no mundo, o fenômeno da urbanização nas últimas décadas tem ocasionado diversas mudanças no perfil demográfico, na qualidade de vida e no abastecimento alimentar das populações, além da grave crise ambiental instaurada nas grandes cidades. A agricultura urbana e periurbana de base agroecológica tem se apresentado como uma alternativa para o meio ambiente das cidades e para a saúde das populações urbanas, contribuindo com o desenvolvimento da biodiversidade; para o melhor aproveitamento dos espaços e dos resíduos; para o manejo adequado dos recursos de água e solo e para o fortalecimento da segurança alimentar e nutricional (SAN). O presente estudo investigou a experiência do Projeto Colhendo Sustentabilidade: Práticas Comunitárias de Segurança Alimentar e Agricultura Urbana (PCS), desenvolvido entre 2008 e 2011, no município de Embu das Artes, São Paulo, Brasil sob a ótica da Promoção da Saúde. As ações do projeto ocorreram em diversos espaços urbanos e equipamentos públicos do município. A pesquisa de caráter qualitativo contou com a realização de quatro oficinas de sistematização com atores sociais envolvidos: técnicos dos serviços públicos, participantes e equipe técnica do projeto; entrevista individual com informante-chave e análise documental. A intersetorialidade apresentou-se com um processo desafiador, sendo mais efetiva na base da pirâmide organizacional do poder público municipal. A busca por sustentabilidade foi identificada por meio de ações voltadas às questões econômica, ambiental e de continuidade e fortalecimento do próprio projeto. Verificou-se que projeto buscou fomentar a participação social, desenvolver habilidades pessoais e coletivas e reforçar a ação comunitária por meio do empoderamento comunitário. O processo educativo contribuiu para a formação de agentes multiplicadores em práticas sustentáveis e criação de espaços saudáveis. Os participantes relataram mudanças nos hábitos alimentares; descoberta de novas espécies comestíveis; acesso a uma alimentação diversificada e melhoria na saúde física e mental após envolvimento nas atividades nas hortas comunitárias. Verificou-se a potencialidade do PCS na elaboração de políticas públicas saudáveis intersetoriais, contribuindo para resultados mais efetivos de melhoria na qualidade de vida das populações, promovendo de forma mais ampla a saúde das pessoas / In Brazil and worldwide, the phenomenon of urbanization in recent decades has brought about several changes in demographic profiles, quality of life and human food supply, as well as the development of a serious environmental crisis in big cities. Agroecology-based urban and peri-urban agriculture has been presented as a fruitful solution for the affected urban environment and health of urban populations, contributing to the development of biodiversity, better utilization of space and waste, proper management of water and soil resources and the strengthening of food security and nutrition (FSN). This study investigated the experience of the project Harvesting Sustainability: Community Practices for Urban Agriculture and Food Security (Projeto Colhendo Sustentabilidade; PCS), developed between 2008 and 2011 in the town of Embu das Artes, Sao Paulo, Brazil, from the viewpoint of Health Promotion. Project actions took place in several urban spaces and muni cipal facilities intended for public use. The qualitative research included four systematization workshops, with technical team, public service technicians and community members as participant social actors, as well as individual interview with selection of key informant, and document analysis. Intersectoriality proved to be a challenging process, being more effective at the base of the organizational pyramid of the municipal government. The search for sustainability was identified through actions aimed at economic and environmental issues, and also those related to continuity and strengthening of the project itself. It was found that the project sought to promote social participation, development of personal and collective skills, and strengthening of community action through community empowerment. The educational process contributed to the training of multipliers through sustainable practices, and the creation of healthy spaces. Participants reported changes in eating habits, finding of new edible species, access to a diversified diet and improved physical and mental health after involvement in activities in the community gardens. The potential of the PCS was identified with respect to development of healthy intersectorial public policies, which contribute to more effective results on improved quality of human life, thus promoting human health in a broader sense

This thesis explores the social dynamics of community gardens and their participation within them in the contemporary food justice movement in Seattle, Washington. Community gardens are seen as solutions to myriad urban and environmental problems, such as food deserts, community empowerment, urban greening, environmental education and sustainability of the food system. Three case studies of Seattle organizations, the P-Patch Program, Lettuce Link and Alleycat Acres, provide a basis for analysis of the purported benefit of community empowerment as a function of organizational structure, history and policies. City government support, flexibility, and a critical outlook towards the processes of inclusion and methods of fostering community-based leadership are found to be essential to a garden project. However, the definition of who is the ‘community’ in a community garden is called into question as more potential stakeholders and beneficiaries emerge in a changing and increasingly interconnected city. These networks of organizations and activists, complicated as they may be are a boon to the community gardening scene as they increase avenues for access for more Seattleites to healthy, local food. Community gardens are another representation of the current global movements against social inequalities, and therefore, to take full advantage of this opportunity for social change, community garden organizers must remain critically conscious of who is included and how this participation occurs.

This thesis addresses resilience for the future of Canadian suburbs, through the lens of buildings and food, particularly against the backdrop of peak oil and climate change. Food access is an integral part of how a city sustains itself. There is growing evidence that the current global food system, the one that feeds many cities today, is “broken” or at least at risk. It has, in the past, produced an abundance of food. It has also brought along a number of unintended consequences, has neglected to embed equitable distribution patterns, and when faced with peak oil and climate change, risks some form of collapse. This thesis focuses on the food distribution question. It suggests a new food system model for the City of Mississauga that couples the region's local systems with global networks in a set of local/global relationships. The research portion of this work provides an overview of the dynamic historical and present relationship between food and city infrastructure, touches on the issues facing suburban resiliency today, and investigates the challenges facing the food retail industry. It then draws lessons from large-scale typologies of urban agriculture being proposed in recent years by architects and urban designers. This work, specifically at the design stage, identifies the suburban supermarket as a local catalyst for transformation. Today, the City of Mississauga is not food secure – that is, it does not rely on a safe, adequate, sustainable, or appropriate food supply. This thesis investigates how local and sustainable food systems can be integrated into the urban fabric and systems sustaining suburbs today. It further seeks to build on existing conditions, and answer how the suburban big-box typology, preferred by retailers, can contribute to food security.

The Youth for EcoAction (YEA) Program is a project of the Boys and Girls Clubs of Winnipeg involving youth at risk in after-school programming. The program focuses on urban agriculture and gardening projects and was developed using the circle of courage model of youth empowerment. This research used participatory methods, including participatory video to analyze the program and its benefits. The YEA program creates positive change in the lives of participants and at a community-wide level. These benefits include skill building and job training, improved self esteem, nutrition and food security, increased environmental awareness and behaviour, and greater community strength. Youth serving agencies, community development organizations and government policy makers should look to the YEA program as a model for youth empowerment and community revitalization. This thesis also explores benefits of participatory research, specifically participatory video, and documents the personal learnings and journey of the author from researcher to practitioner.

This work considers the legal impediments to farming in an urban environment with a particular focus on the municipal bylaws that prohibit the keeping of hens in Saskatoon. The jurisdictional competency of Saskatoon to prohibit the keeping of urban hens is challenged under both municipal law and constitutional law, and more broadly, under the general premise that liberty interests should often prevail where a bylaw is arbitrary, misinformed, and restricts the pursuit of truth and human flourishing. Saskatoon’s urban hen prohibition is argued to be premised more on a form of moral reasoning that unnecessarily distinguishes between rural and urban environments, and less, if at all, on empirical evidence. Urban agriculture is often undertaken to address the environmental and social shortfalls of the global food system, such as the system’s connection with climate change, animal welfare issues, and challenges associated with the distribution of food. Moreover, urban agriculture is a means of protecting the rights of producers and consumers, as articulated by the food sovereignty movement. In this work, a claimant’s desire to advance food rights (including food sovereignty) through the keeping of urban hens is argued to engage the guarantee to freedom of expression and freedom of conscience under Canada’s Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This work explores the possibility of protecting the manifestation of social and environmental action through the guarantee to freedom of conscience. This work develops a cursory test for determining where a claimant’s guarantee to freedom of conscience is violated, drawing on the well established protection of freedom of expression and freedom of religion.

The burgeoning of subsistence agriculture in the townships of Bulawayo, the second largest city in Zimbabwe symbolizes a change in the use of urban space in many cities of the global South. The activity of subsistence agriculture, which in both colonial and post-colonial Zimbabwe has been highly regarded as a rural activity is now a common sight in most townships of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe (RAUF, 2007). Indeed the rise of subsistence agriculture in the residential areas of Bulawayo particularly in the township of Gwabalanda is leading to what I refer to as the ‘ruralization of urban space’, where through practises of subsistence agriculture, elements of rural life have slowly seeped into the everyday life of urbanites (cf. Rogerson, 1993:33; Zeleza, 1999:45). The thesis uses Lefebvre’s (1974) theory of Production of Space to investigate some of the conditions and factors that have influenced the ruralization of urban space in the township of Gwabalanda, as seen in the intensification of a rural-oriented activity of subsistence farm. Using primary data from 17 semi-structured interviews with Gwabalanda residents involved in farming, the thesis intended to interrogate the perceptions and attitudes Gwabalanda residents hold towards the changes in the use of urban space and also examine the possible benefits of urban farming. The investigation of subsistence farming in Gwabalanda led me to identify three complementing and overarching themes or factors that drive urban farming and the ruralization of urban space. The first two themes are the political and economic factors which seem to operate on a macro-level, whereas the other theme of socio-cultural factors functions at an individual or household level. Economic and political factors such unemployment, lack of income, high transport costs of moving food, political alienation and freedom were identified by Gwabalanda residents as important drivers of urban agriculture. On the other hand, socio-cultural aspects which included identity, traditional religion, socialization and changes in migration patterns appeared to be crucial motivators for cultivating urban spaces. The research study also found out that urban households that are engaged in subsistence farming are more food secure and generate extra income from selling some of the produced crops. The income generated is used to pay school fees, pay bills and buy farming inputs for the next planting season. Furthermore some households were sending excess farm produce to their rural homes.