Over three decades of rapid economic growth in China, beginning in 1978, has been accompanied by ever-enlarging urban-rural inequalities in terms of the various aspects of income, welfare, infrastructure, medical treatment, and education (amongst others). These two parts – the urban and the rural - have long been treated separately, without much consideration being given to their mutual linkages (relations). Urban and rural development can, essentially, be interpreted as the deployment of key factors (terms of trade for agricultural products, land requisition, and labor transfer), and the supply of public goods and services (infrastructure, education, insurance, and medical care). Thus, the urban-rural inequalities experienced by China at present can be understood as the consequence of the factor flows (labor, capital, goods, information, and technology, etc.) and agglomeration between these two parts. This thesis aims to investigate urban-rural relations in China in the post-reform era, and their influences on the economic, social, and environmental development in both the urban and the rural areas. The thesis consists of five papers and the cover essay. The first two papers provide a detailed picture of urban-rural relations in China, while the other papers examine the impact of urban-rural relations in terms of population mobility, arable and built land use change, and regional economic inequality in the study area. The findings of the thesis reveal that urban-rural relations in China became gradually intensified in the post-reform era, especially when the central government initiated a shift from a situation of urban bias to comprehensive support for the rural areas. However, the mutual resource flows in the study area still tend to agglomerate in the urban districts, while only reaching the rural peripheries to a limited extent. This is demonstrated in the way in which the urban districts experienced fast and large scale demographic growth and land use change, while slow and small-scale demographic and land use change took place in the peripheries. The urban-rural interface, which is situated between the urban and rural areas, evidences medium-level resource agglomeration. This thesis, through the discussion which it sets out, emphasizes the necessity of exercising both political and market forces in order to achieve balanced urban-rural resource flows in China. Another implication for policy making is to develop more sub-centers at the peri-urban or periphery, making these areas the interface for urban-rural resource linkages. / QC 20110909

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<p>Usled pojave novog nacina oblikovanja prostora naselja i uocenih osnovnih<br />tendencija transformacija, pri kojima se gube osnovne karakteristike tradicionalno<br />formiranih blokova, otpocelo je istraživanje uloge urbanog i ruralnog bloka u<br />formiranju strukture i identiteta naselja u Vojvodini. Osnovni cilj ove doktorske<br />disertacije je da se potvrdi da je blok oduvek bio sastavni, ponekad i neodvojivi, deo<br />strukture naselja, njegov prepoznatljiv element i znacajno mesto susedstva, pa da je,<br />zbog toga, bitno sacuvati njegove vrednosti i pri buducim intervencijama u naseljima.<br />Da bi se shvatio uzrok pojave nestajanja tradicionalnog bloka, istraživane su<br />njegove karakteristike u naseljima iz pro&scaron;losti, a prouceni su i stavovi o bloku svetski<br />poznatih autora iz oblasti urbanizma i arhitekture. Analiziranjem nacina razmi&scaron;ljanja<br />razlicitih autora i uocavanjem efekata njihovih stavova po pitanju organizacije,<br />funkcionisanja, ekologije i ostalih karakteristika blokova, do&scaron;lo se do novih saznanja<br />bitnih za dalje delovanje u oblastima planiranja, projektovanja, gra&eth;enja, za&scaron;tite i<br />edukacije. Detaljnim sagledavanjem bloka kao samostalnog elementa, ali i kao<br />elementa koji je u me&eth;udejstvu sa ostalim delovima naselja, istražene su sve<br />njegove vrednosti i dokazana je njegova uloga u formiranju strukture i identiteta<br />naselja.<br />Na primerima urbanih i ruralnih naselja iz Vojvodine i njenog okruženja<br />analizirane su i me&eth;usobno upore&eth;ene osnovne karakteristike centralnih i perifernih<br />blokava i dokazan je njihov uticaj na formiranje stukture i identiteta naselja.<br />Konstatovane su velike slicnosti izme&eth;u istraživanih blokova, ali i odre&eth;ene razlike.<br />Tokom istraživanja su konstatovane i slicnosti izme&eth;u razlicitih prostornih elemenata<br />kao npr. izme&eth;u naselja, bloka, objekta i predmeta. Na osnovu svega toga je<br />zakljuceno da je blok zaista jedan od osnovnih elemenata naselja, cijem oblikovanju i<br />rekonstrukciji, zbog toga, treba prilaziti veoma oprezno i sveobuhvatno.<br />Na osnovu sprovedenih istraživanja naselja i njihovih blokova, kako u<br />pro&scaron;losti, tako i u sada&scaron;njosti, naznacene su moguce vizije razvoja bloka. Sa<br />osnovnim ciljem da se sacuvaju vrednosti koje ima tradicionalno organizovan blok,<br />kao i da se ukaže na metode razvoja i transformacija blokova u buducnosti, do&scaron;lo se<br />do preporuka za njihovo: planiranje, projektovanje, gra&eth;enje, za&scaron;titu i edukaciju koja<br />se odnosi na blok. Teorijska istraživanja su konkretizovana kroz izradu modela<br />istraživanja naselja i blokova, data je i anketa za istraživanje socijalnih kontakata u<br />okviru blokova, a po formiranim modelima je sprovedeno istraživanje na 16 naselja i<br />32 bloka. Rezultati ove doktorske disertacije su formulisani u obliku preporuka za<br />intervenisanje u razlicitim oblastima ure&eth;enja prostora naselja. Pri tome se ocekuje<br />da se doprinese adekvatnijem ure&eth;enju blokova, a time i naselja.</p> / <p> Due to the appearance of the new manner of forming space in settlements and<br /> the observed basic tendencies of transformation, resulting in the loss of basic<br /> characteristics of traditional blocks, this research commenced with the role of urban<br /> and rural block in forming the structure and the identity of settlements in Vojvodina.<br /> The basic aim of this Doctoral dissertation is to confirm that the block has always<br /> been an incorporated and sometimes the inseparable segment of settlement<br /> structure, its recognisable element and an important place of neighbouring.<br /> Therefore, it has been essential to protect values of traditional blocks in future<br /> interventions in settlements.<br /> In order to understand the causes of traditional block disappearance, the<br /> dissertation deals with researching its characteristics historically, accompanying with<br /> studying the opinions on blocks by world-known authors in the field of urbanism and<br /> architecture. The analysis on the manner of thinking of various authors and the<br /> observations on the effects of their opinion on organization, function, ecology and<br /> other characteristics of blocks led to new knowledge essential for further work in<br /> planning, designing, construction, protection and education. Scanning a block as an<br /> individual element, yet an element in interaction with the other segments of<br /> settlement as well, all its values have been investigated and its role in forming the<br /> structure and the identity of settlements has been proven.<br /> Utilizing the examples from urban and rural settlements in Vojvodina and the<br /> surrounding regions, the basic characteristics of central and peripheral blocks have<br /> been analysed and mutually compared, and their influence on creating the structure<br /> and the identity of settlements has been proven. Extensive similarities among the<br /> examined blocks have been established, as well as certain differences. During the<br /> research, certain similarities between diverse spatial elements have been observed<br /> as well, such as between settlements, blocks, facilities and objects. Based on the<br /> above, it could have been concluded that the block is truly one of the basic elements<br /> of settlements; thus, it is necessary to approach its shape and reconstruction very<br /> carefully and thoroughly.<br /> Based on the conducted researches of settlements and their blocks, in the<br /> past as well as in the present, plausible visions of block&#39;s development have been<br /> specified. In order to preserve the values of traditionally organized blocks, as well as<br /> to indicate the methods of the block development and transformation in the future,<br /> the dissertation offers certain recommendations for their planning, designing,<br /> construction, building protection and education referring to blocks. The theoretical<br /> researches have been realized through making of research models of settlements<br /> and blocks. The dissertation also provides a questionnaire for the purpose of<br /> researching social contacts within blocks, while the formed models were utilized to<br /> conduct a research on 16 settlements and 32 blocks. The results of this Doctoral<br /> dissertation have been presented as recommendations for the interventions in<br /> diverse areas of settlement area arrangements. They are expected to contribute to<br /> more adequate arrangement of blocks and hence the settlements as well.</p>

In recent years it has become widely accepted that the natural systems on which we depend for survival are being degraded by human activity. It is no longer a question of if we need to reduce our impact upon the planet, but of the extent to which we need to change our behaviour, and how soon we need to act. Such change will depend upon the support of voters, governments, and the international community and will require wide spread changes in attitudes and behaviour. Using the social identity approach as a framework, the current programme of research focuses on rural land users in Australia and the effectiveness of sustainable land use campaigns directed at them from both urban and rural sources. The studies provide a novel contribution to the area by demonstrating the effects of intergroup threat on group-based communication, in particular, the perception of threat to rural identity and the effect on urban and rural messages aimed at changing land use behaviour. Conclusions about broader social influence processes were also made by assessing rural participants’ perceptions of the degree to which others are influenced. Although the studies are based in the context of rural Australian land users, the results and theoretical implications can be applied to any situation wherein one group is attempting to change the attitudes and behaviours of another group. This could range from local interest groups trying to convince each other of the merits of their ideas through to political parties and nations calling for united and decisive action on global issues. Such groups ignore issues of power and status at the risk of ineffective communications or even a backlash in opinion and behaviour. Six studies were conducted, including five survey studies with rural landholders and one experiment with students at a rural campus. Study 1 (N = 251) was an evaluation of sustainable land use campaigns in general, comparing those from urban sources to those from rural sources. Study 2 (N = 585) extended this by assessing the moderating role of intergroup threat perceptions. This study also measured the perceptions of influence of urban and rural messages on urban people and other rural people. Study 3 (N = 98) assessed the influence of an actual land use campaign delivered by an ingroup source on individuals’ attitudes and behaviours and the perceived influence on others. Study 4 (N = 249) built upon Study 2 but included additional measures to address some of the inconsistencies between Studies 1 and 2. To address the psychological underpinnings of group-based influence, Study 5 (N = 124) included measures of trust in urban and rural sources as well as reports of influence, agreement, and past behaviour. To conclude, Study 6 (N = 64) provided an experimental test of persuasion by manipulating the source of the message. Self-reported identification and intergroup threat were examined as moderators of group-based persuasion. Furthermore, attributions of constructiveness were explored as a possible reason for the superior influence of ingroups. Across the six studies it was found that ingroup messages were consistently more influential than outgroup messages. Attributions of trust and constructiveness helped to explain the superior influence of ingroups. In terms of perceptions of influence on others, there was a third-person effect for urban messages but rural people did not differentiate between themselves and other rural people in response to rural messages. Furthermore, rural identification was associated with greater reported influence from the ingroup source and perceived threat was associated with increased influence of rural messages compared to urban messages. These findings have clear implications for attempts at changing attitudes between groups, particularly where there is a salient and competitive intergroup context. Outgroups operate at a distinct disadvantage in delivering persuasive communications, especially if ingroup identification is high or there is a perception of threat stemming from the communicating group. Evidence of the persuasiveness of ingroups compared to outgroups is further strengthened by the perceptions of similarity in influence of rural sources for self and other ingroup members. The findings on trust and constructiveness hint at the possibility of overcoming barriers to outgroup persuasion if positive motives for the messages can be established. Of course, this depends on the severity of the intergroup context and the nature of communication. Recommendations are made for a collaborative approach to achieving change.

Rapid urbanization, which is one of the major problems of contemporary era, created cities as the major destroying centers of nature and ecology by human beings. In this respect, urban agriculture takes place in urban areas as a new way to meet nature and urban for improving the quality of life in the last decades. Despite the belief that agricultural activities always take place in rural areas, agriculture in urban areas would provide citizens many opportunities in terms of social, economic and environmental aspects. This study aims to identify the notions of urban agriculture, and to investigate its economic, social and environmental impacts by exemplifying the different practices around world. It focuses on Black Sea Towns of Turkey in the case of Rize where agriculture is occupied in important parts of urban and rural areas. Unique features of agriculture in urban areas as they differ from other implementations in the world are examined. In this thesis, UA is considered as socio-economic and townscape value in the city. In the case of Rize, urban agriculture appears as an indispensable part of social life that bears the imprint of rural background of the cities.

The purpose of this paper is to study China’s income inequality under rapid economic growth.Does the relationship between economic growth and income inequality in China follow theKuznets hypothesis? What is the main cause and trend of China’s income inequality? We usedata which covers the period 1980-2005 to analyze the overall inequality, and data coveringthe period 1980-2002 to analyze the inequality inside rural and urban areas. The derivedresults doubt the validity of Kuznets hypothesis on explaining the relationship betweeneconomic growth and income inequality in China. Also we derive the trend of China’sincreased income inequality and find that the urban-rural income disparity is the main causeof China’s income inequality.

Retrofit programmes for installing energy efficient technologies in social housing are a key part of efforts to reduce UK carbon emissions by 80 per cent by 2050. This requires a reduction in CO2 emissions by an average of 80%, from all housing, in order to assist the UK’s long term goals. The UK’s turnover of housing stock is relatively slow compared to most developed countries and approximately 87% of the current housing stock will still be standing in 2050. Therefore, to meet carbon emissions targets, existing buildings must be refurbished or ‘retrofitted’ with technologies which reduce carbon emissions on a huge scale. The Government intends to achieve this by driving energy efficiency in households and businesses predominantly through the proposed Green Deal framework. This represents a shift in policy approach since the 2010 elections, towards a private finance and private industry approach, as rather than the previous Labour Governments predominately state managed and grant-aided social retrofit approach. The influence of the economic recession at the time of this transition is also likely to be a key driver of the Governments changing approach to financing the retrofit of millions of UK homes. Other strategies such as the UK Fuel Poverty Strategy are also intended to dove-tail with this national push to retrofit housing stock, due to reduced energy costs and increased thermal comfort. There is great potential for the proposed national retrofit mobilisation to reduce carbon emissions from homes, contribute to economic growth and provide other benefits such as the reduction of Fuel Poverty. However, the amount of energy used in homes is largely dependent on the behaviours of the occupier(s) and occupant behaviour can determine the effectiveness of retrofit programmes and thus impact on the potential of this significant mobilisation to reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions from housing. Thus, occupant behaviour is increasingly recognised as a critical element to be acknowledged and addressed in order to meet carbon reduction targets, both within the literature (excluding the policy literature) by and those delivering retrofits on the ground. This research provides a unique insight into occupant energy use behaviour by evaluating a ‘live’ project to retrofit energy efficient being implemented by Gentoo Group which includes construction and social landlord roles. The literature review relevant to the research focuses on Psychological theories of behaviour and Practice Theory. This provides insights from both paradigms provide two viewpoints on behaviour: an insight into the nature of individual behaviour (Psychological theories of behaviour), and; a consideration of how the framework and structure of society (including aspects such as technology) interacts with the individual’s practices (Practice Theory). The research methodology utilised an inductive approach, underpinned by a qualitative research design. In-depth interviews were conducted before and after specific interventions (a technical intervention and informational interventions) took place, these interviews were recorded and transcriptions were thematically organised and analysed using the template analysis technique. This process first identified ‘patterns of behaviour related to energy use’ arising due the project interventions and secondly based on the frequency of these occurring, identified ‘key patterns’. The theoretical perspectives of the Psychology and Practice Theory literature were drawn on in order to contextualise the findings of the research, but it this thesis does not attempt to apply them in an empirical approach. The analysis process instead draws on specific elements from both of the disciplines to assist the interrogation of the ‘key patterns’ so they may be better explained or understood. Key findings of the research highlighted that energy use behaviour is impacted by the introduction of technology, and tenant behaviour can potentially impact on the energy saving effectiveness of retrofit projects. Significant impacts were identified specifically where tenants had an interaction with the technology being introduced and the informational intervention had no significant impact on behaviour. ‘Key patterns’ indicated several factors which influence tenant energy use behaviour and of these the barriers to retrofit effectiveness were identified as: limited access to knowledge and skills; habits preventing behaviour change to utilise introduced technologies; the quality of installation and function of the technical intervention; convenience of introduced technology potentially increasing energy use, and: the need or desire for thermal comfort. The thesis concludes that energy use behaviour is pivotal factor in determining retrofit effectiveness and that behaviour, and in particular behaviour-related barriers to retrofit effectiveness, should be acknowledged and addressed as part of the UK retrofit strategy, especially in the light emerging policies such as the Green Deal and Energy Company Obligation, which intend to drive retrofit on a huge scale. Recommendations are made inform retrofit practitioners and academic and policy debates on behaviour in the context social housing retrofit, and suggestions are made for future research to explore this research area further.

Kyoto University (京都大学) / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地球環境学) / 甲第19160号 / 地環博第135号 / 新制||地環||27 / 32111 / 京都大学大学院地球環境学舎環境マネジメント専攻 / (主査)教授 ｼｮｳ ﾗｼﾞﾌﾞ, 教授 岡﨑 健二, 准教授 西前 出 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to evaluate and compare the extent and potential correlates of sexual risk taking behaviors related to condom use and number of sexual partners among Haitians aged 15 to 49 years old living in the urban and rural areas. Methods: Data were obtained from the 2005-2006 cross-sectional survey conducted by the Demographic Health survey. Our study population (15143) was analyzed based on the Health Belief Model (HBM) theory using a bivariate and multiple logistic regression analysis with SPSS for windows. Results: In both rural and urban areas dwellers had an accurate knowledge of the disease. However, a small proportion in both areas used condoms during their last sexual intercourse. Perceiving the disease's severity was more likely associated with condom use in the urban (OR 1.36, p ≤ .01) and in the rural areas (OR 1.45, p ≤.05). Strong associations have been found between some variables of the HBM and condom use but none have been found associated with zero or one sex partner. Findings were similar in both areas Conclusion: Holistic approach should be considered in the prevention strategy conducted in Haiti to tackle other factors that may contribute in delaying responsible sexual behavior in that country.

Background: Differences in health and living conditions between urban and rural settings can be seen as an important example of gaps between population groups. Birth weight and child growth are important predictors for the future health of a person and at aggregate level, for the public health of a population.The general aim of this thesis is to describe and discuss birth weight, physical growth and breastfeeding of children, as well as associated factors, from birth to 24 months of age in urban and rural areas of Vietnam, thus contributing to the evidence base for health strategy and policy. Methods: Two Health and Demographic Surveillance Sites in Hanoi were used; urban Dodalab and FilaBavi in the rural part. To study rural birth weight 1999 to 2010 information was obtained for 10,114 newborn in FilaBavi. To study urban rural growth disparities 2008-2010, 1,466 children were followed for two years after birth with measurements of weight and length. A study of breastfeeding included 2,572 mothers followed for one year after delivery. Background information about households and mothers was taken from routine surveys in the two sites. Results: The mean birth weight in FilaBavi remained stable at about 3,100 grams, over the 12 years studied despite rapid economic and technological development. At the individual level we found birth weight to be associated with household economy and the education of mothers. In the urban rural comparison, the mean birth weight for urban boys and girls were 3,298 and 3,203 g as compared with 3,105 and 3,057 g for the rural infants. Children in the urban area grew faster than those in the rural area. There were markedly higher frequencies of stunting in the rural area compared with the urban. The initiation of breastfeeding during the first hour of life was more frequent in the urban area. Exclusive breastfeeding during the first three months of age was more commonly reported in the rural than in the urban area. Both birth weight and child growth were statistically significantly and positively associated with economic conditions and mother’s education. Conclusion: The results of the studies presented in this thesis show that there are large and important differences in child birth weight, child growth and infant breastfeeding between urban and rural areas. There are also major differences between the areas with respect to education and economic resources. All predictors of child birth weight and growth discussed are directly or indirectly associated with the social and economic conditions. Globalization and urbanization means obvious risks for increasing gaps between as well as within the rural and urban areas. Large discrepancies in a society will lead to serious public health problems in all segments of the population, not only the underprivileged.