This item is not the definitive copy. Please use the following citation when referencing this material: Dillon, A. (1991) Requirements analysis for hypertext applications: the why, what and how approach. Applied Ergonomics, 22(4), 458-462. Abstract: The present paper presents a simple task description procedure for text usage aimed at supporting human factors input to the specification stage of hypertext and electronic document design. The need for such techniques is outlined and the approach is described in the context of designing hypertext versions of software manuals. Applications and limitations of this procedure are discussed.

Published in: M.Sharples (Ed) Computer Supported Collaborative Writing. (London: Springer-Verlag) 1993. pp 69-86. INTRODUCTION: Psychologists have been taking an increasing interest in the writing process over the last decade and models of human cognition and task behaviour during writing are emerging (see e.g., Hayes and Flower 1980, Sharples et al 1989). Though we are far short of a complete model of this process several basic components have been identified and most theorists allude to these at some stage in their description. For example, it is reckoned (as much from common sense as experimental analysis) that most writing proceeds through a basic sequence of actions from a rough plan through a draft to a revision stage which may occur cyclically until the writer believes the document is ready. Plans can be considered as either detailed or vague, influenced by expectations of the readerâ s knowledge, the typical form of the document being produced and so forth. The drafts may vary from the extremely sketchy to the almost complete depending on the writerâ s experience, knowledge of the subject, preferred writing style etc. and revisions include such acts as minor spell checking, proofreading or complete re-writes.

In an increasingly complex world where people routinely handle large amounts of information, individuals are constantly challenged to manage and effectively use the information that they are responsible for. While email is the canonical example of an information overloading application, other well known PIM applications and tasks cited in earlier chapters of this book include maintaining addresses and contacts, scheduling, and organizing the various documents and bookmarks that one is interested in. Not surprisingly, there are individual differences (ID) in how, and how well, people cope with the challenge of personal information management. This greatly complicates any scientific analysis of PIM behavior. Thus, in addition to the evaluation methods discussed in the previous chapter, researchers and designers need to consider when and how individual differences should be included within parsimonious interpretations and explanations of PIM behavior. In this chapter we propose an approach where differences between individuals are considered last, after the influences of the environment and the task context have first been considered, and after group difference (e.g., between job classifications) have been investigated. We believe that this is a logical way to proceed, since like observing an ant walking over sand-dunes (cf. Simon, 1996) we should not ascribe complexities to an individual if they can instead be explained as due to properties of the environment. The goal of this chapter will be to review and synthesize some of the key findings in how PIM behavior differs between individuals. Some of the reasons why these differences occur and what can be done about them will also be discussed.

This study seeks to find out how human beings cluster Web pages naturally. 20 Web pages retrieved by the Northern Light search engine for each of 10 queries were sorted by 3 subjects into categories that were natural or meaningful to them. It was found that different subjects clustered the same set of Web pages quite differently and created different categories. The average inter-subject similarity of the clusters created was a low 0.27. Subjects created an average of 5.4 clusters for each sorting. The categories constructed can be divided into 10 types. About 1/3 of the categories created were topical. Another 20% of the categories relate to the degree of relevance or usefulness. The rest of the categories were subject-independent categories such as format, purpose, authoritativeness and direction to other sources. The authors plan to develop automatic methods for categorizing Web pages using the common categories created by the subjects. It is hoped that the techniques developed can be used by Web search engines to automatically organize Web pages retrieved into categories that are natural to users.

This item is not the definitive copy. Please use the following this material: Dillon, A. and Song M. (1997) An empirical novice and expert searchers of a textual and a graphic database, Journal of Digital Information, 1(1). Abstract: The present paper reports an experimental test of a prototype graphic and textual search interface for a university database on art-resource works. Novice and expert searchers were tested on both interfaces with performance assessed in terms of search speed and accuracy. Verbal protocols and navigation strategies were also examined. Experts performed significantly faster than novices though both user groups performed slightly (but not significantly) faster with the graphical interface. Furthermore, the graphical interface significantly reduced navigation effort. While there were no significant task accuracy differences, novices failed to complete more searches with the textual interface. Implications of these results for search interfaces to digital resources are briefly discussed.

In an earlier paper the authors discussed reference services in two university libraries and suggested changes to the services based on a user survey. They also quoted research into staff and student use of information resources. Although libraries have no difficulty in compiling quantitative data, the use of such qualitative research to delve beyond the statistics, in order to better understand user needs, perceptions and behaviours, is a recent development at Harbin Engineering University Library, China. However, at the Library of the University of Northumbria in England there is a long history of using research to evaluate services. This paper gives a very brief introduction to the value of qualitative re-search in evaluating services and providing a sound basis for management decisions about staffing and service delivery. Some of the methods used at the two universities are outlined. Finally, two case studies of research projects, one from each university, will be described and the extent to which they have resulted in changes to policies or practices will be examined.

A number of references in the Human-Computer Interaction literature make the common-sense suggestion that the animated zooming effect accompanying the opening or closing of a folder in the Apple Macintosh graphical user interface aids in a user's perception of which window corresponds to which folder. We examine this claim empirically using two controlled experiments. Although we did not find a statistically significant overall difference resulting from the presence or absence of the zooming effect, a post hoc analysis revealed a highly significant interaction between the experience of users with the Macintosh user interface and the zooming effect. This individual difference suggests that users become attuned to the informational content of the zooming effect with experience.

Initial articles have posed difficulty for end-users since the first online library catalogs. This study examines the way users search using left-anchored title searches for items that contain insignificant initial articles in a library catalog. It also investigates how users react when they do not find an item because their search phrase included an insignificant initial article. The results show that a considerable number of users do not find existing titles that have insignificant initial articles because their search strategy does not coincide with the way the Library Management System was designed to handle index and retrieve these titles. Suggestions for further research are offered.

This paper presents and empirically evaluates a Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) which can serve as a simple to use, and cost-effective tool for evaluating applications and reliably predicting whether they will be accepted by users. After presenting TAM, the paper reports on a study designed to evaluate its effectiveness at predicting system use. In the study the researchers presented 76 novice users with an overview and hands-on demonstration of Netscape. Following this demonstration, data on user perceptions and attitudes about Netscape were gathered based on this initial exposure to the system. Follow up data was then gathered two weeks later to evaluate actual use of Netscape following the demonstration. Results suggest that TAM is an effective and cost effective tool for predicting end user acceptance of systems. Suggestions for future research and conclusions for both researchers and practitioners are offered.

Dervin and Nilanâ s (1986) article, â Information needs and uses,â has been an influential article in Library and Information Science (LIS), because it calls for a paradigm shift in LIS away from research that focuses on systems and standards to research that focuses on users. This article also has been influential on library and information practice. Librarians and other information workers are called on to be user-centered and place users at the center of library programs and services. Conforming to the user-centered paradigm, however, has been problematic for broad representational systems, like library cataloging, that must meet the diverse needs of global users. Despite calls to focus on users, the cataloging field has not taken a user-centered approach in research or in the development of cataloging standards. Instead, the responsibility to meet usersâ needs has been placed on cataloging practitioners, who are encouraged to customize bibliographic records to meet their local usersâ needs. Dissertation research by Hoffman (2008) suggests that catalogers are limited in their ability to customize bibliographic records, because catalogers do not know who their users are and cannot identify their usersâ needs. In addition, library administrators discourage customization in favor of efficient cataloging processes. There are limits to LISâ s user-centered paradigm in the area of cataloging, and perhaps it needs to examined and reconsidered. Is the user-centered paradigm still applicable to cataloging? How should cataloging meet usersâ needs? This paper will examine the problems of the user-centered paradigm in cataloging.