Apoptosis plays important roles in host defences against virus infection. It is therefore not surprising that viruses have developed a vast array of modulators that block this process at different stages within the apoptotic pathways. Intrestingly, Orf virus (ORFV), a member of the Parapoxvirus genus, did not reveal any of the known poxviral inhibitors of apoptosis, but was found to express a unique anti-apoptotic protein, ORFV125. The aim of this PhD project was to determine the subcellular localisation of this protein and to further characterise its anti-apoptotic activity. This included exploring its ability to inhibit early, intermediate and late events of apoptosis and identifying the mechanism by which this viral protein functions to prevent cell death. Experiments revealed that ORFV125 was localised to the mitochondria through a C-terminal mitochondrial-targeting motif, and this specific location was necessary for the protein�s anti-apoptotic function. Furthermore, the viral protein inhibited UV-induced apoptotic events at and downstream of the mitochondria such as cytochrome c release, caspase activation and DNA fragmentation. However, it was not able to prevent UV-induced activation of the c-Jun-NH₂ kinase (JNK), an event occurring upstream of the mitochondria, consistent with its localisation to this organelle. The ability to prevent apoptosis was comparable with that of the cellular anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, which belongs to a family of mitochondrial regulators of apoptosis. Although standard BLAST analysis failed to detect homology to anti-apoptotic members of the Bcl-2 family, a manual alignment of the primary sequence of ORFV125 with these proteins revealed characteristic residues of Bcl-2 homology (BH) domains within ORFV125. These motifs are conserved within the Bcl-2 proteins and important for their structure and function. In addition, mutating amino acids within the ORFV125 BH domains led to a loss of the anti-apoptotic function of the mutated proteins, indicating the functional importance of these residues for the viral protein. These observations suggest that ORFV125 might be classified as a viral Bcl-2-like protein. To provide evidence for this hypothesis, it was investigated if ORFV125 acts in a Bcl-2-like manner to inhibit apoptosis. The viral protein was able to entirely block the activation of the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members Bak and Bax, although it did not directly bind to these proteins. Instead, ORFV125 interacted with a subset of the pro-apoptotic BH3-only proteins, which can trigger the activation of Bax and Bak. Furthermore, this study demonstrated that ORFV125 could inhibit apoptosis induced by BH3-only proteins to which the viral protein could bind. On the other hand, ORFV125 was not able to prevent the activity of pro-apoptotic proteins that it failed to interact with. This shows that ORFV125�s mechanism of action is to inhibit the activity of BH3-only proteins by binding and neutralising their function. Overall, these results provided evidence that ORFV125 is potent anti-apoptotic protein that can prevent UV-induced cell death without the participation of other ORFV proteins. Furthermore, the viral protein shared primary sequence and secondary structure similarities to Bcl-2 family members and acted in a Bcl-2-like manner to inhibit apoptosis.

The human hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a small hepatotropic virus, which affects approximately 350 million chronic sufferers worldwide. It has a compact 3.2 kbp dsDNA genome encoding four major overlapping genes namely core, polymerase, surface and X required for its replication. The virus synthesises a pregenomic RNA (pgRNA) which functions both as an RNA intermediate for reverse transcription into the DNA genome and as the mRNA for the translation of the core (C) and polymerase (P) proteins. The core overlaps the polymerase gene and is translated at a 10 to 1 ratio. The polymerase gene translated from the P AUG codon is preceded by at least 4 upstream AUG codons (uAUGs), namely C AUG, C1 AUG, J AUG and C2 AUG. Various mechanisms have been implicated in the synthesis of the polymerase protein. This led to the currently accepted model which involves leaky scanning and a reinitiation mechanism in polymerase synthesis. However, multiple sequence alignment of the pgRNA revealed a short upstream open reading frame (uORF) highly conserved at the nucleotide level in all HBV subtypes and mammalian hepadnaviruses. This previously unreported uORF, designated as C0 ORF in this study is also conserved in its position and length. Past studies have either omitted this uORF in their test constructs or ignored its potential role. The C0 ORF has a conserved weak initiation context and is located within the epsilon structure within the 5' leader of the pgRNA, required for viral encapsidation. Importantly, the C0 ORF precedes and overlaps the core ORF, which may suggest an alternative model in which the core and polymerase may be translated and coordinately regulated. Fusion of the C0 ORF to luciferase showed for the first time that this uORF is translated through the detection of reporter activity (~20% of C) and also visualisation of the fusion protein via western analysis using anti-C0 and anti-luciferase antibodies. Subsequent removal of the C0 ORF implicated a role in repressing downstream core fusion protein synthesis in HepG2 cells. A similar repression was observed on J expression. To study the effect of C0 on downstream polymerase translation, a pgRNA-like DNA construct was made and subsequent mutations introduced. Mutation of the C0 AUG led to an increase in initiation at the downstream P AUG. Alteration of the existing weak initiation context to an optimal context which favours stronger initiation consistently showed a potential role for C0 ORF in facilitating reinitiation at certain downstream initiation codons including P AUG. Mutations of other uAUGs preceding the P AUG were also done to better understand their roles in regulating polymerase synthesis. The removal of the C AUG markedly increased expression from the P AUG. This study revealed other internal uAUGs in-frame to the C AUG, namely the C1 and C2 AUGs are also effectively translated, further reducing availability of translating ribosomes to downstream P AUG. Indeed the removal of the C1 and C2 AUGs led to a corresponding increase in initiation from the P AUG. Initiation at the internal J AUG was also reported and its removal showed a significant decrease in expression from the P AUG, consistent with the previous model implicating reinitiation at the P initiation site after translation of the short J ORF. The inhibitory role of the 5 uAUGs prior to the P AUG were confirmed when all were removed, giving rise to translation almost equal to that at C AUG. Taken together, these results suggest a new model in which the HBV C0 ORF plays a key role in controlling core and polymerase synthesis by repressing core translation and making available more ribosomes to downstream AUGs possibly facilitating translation reinitiation. In addition, the translation of the C0 ORF across the [epsilon] region may also preclude encapsidation, potentially acting as a switch discriminating the pgRNA template between encapsidation and translation. Therefore, the highly conserved [epsilon] region and C0 ORF present an excellent target for molecular based antiviral drugs (antisense oligonucleotides, aptamers, ribozymes) potentially providing new anti HBV drugs.

The human hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a small hepatotropic virus, which affects approximately 350 million chronic sufferers worldwide. It has a compact 3.2 kbp dsDNA genome encoding four major overlapping genes namely core, polymerase, surface and X required for its replication. The virus synthesises a pregenomic RNA (pgRNA) which functions both as an RNA intermediate for reverse transcription into the DNA genome and as the mRNA for the translation of the core (C) and polymerase (P) proteins. The core overlaps the polymerase gene and is translated at a 10 to 1 ratio. The polymerase gene translated from the P AUG codon is preceded by at least 4 upstream AUG codons (uAUGs), namely C AUG, C1 AUG, J AUG and C2 AUG. Various mechanisms have been implicated in the synthesis of the polymerase protein. This led to the currently accepted model which involves leaky scanning and a reinitiation mechanism in polymerase synthesis. However, multiple sequence alignment of the pgRNA revealed a short upstream open reading frame (uORF) highly conserved at the nucleotide level in all HBV subtypes and mammalian hepadnaviruses. This previously unreported uORF, designated as C0 ORF in this study is also conserved in its position and length. Past studies have either omitted this uORF in their test constructs or ignored its potential role. The C0 ORF has a conserved weak initiation context and is located within the epsilon structure within the 5� leader of the pgRNA, required for viral encapsidation. Importantly, the C0 ORF precedes and overlaps the core ORF, which may suggest an alternative model in which the core and polymerase may be translated and coordinately regulated. Fusion of the C0 ORF to luciferase showed for the first time that this uORF is translated through the detection of reporter activity (~20% of C) and also visualisation of the fusion protein via western analysis using anti-C0 and anti-luciferase antibodies. Subsequent removal of the C0 ORF implicated a role in repressing downstream core fusion protein synthesis in HepG2 cells. A similar repression was observed on J expression. To study the effect of C0 on downstream polymerase translation, a pgRNA-like DNA construct was made and subsequent mutations introduced. Mutation of the C0 AUG led to an increase in initiation at the downstream P AUG. Alteration of the existing weak initiation context to an optimal context which favours stronger initiation consistently showed a potential role for C0 ORF in facilitating reinitiation at certain downstream initiation codons including P AUG. Mutations of other uAUGs preceding the P AUG were also done to better understand their roles in regulating polymerase synthesis. The removal of the C AUG markedly increased expression from the P AUG. This study revealed other internal uAUGs in-frame to the C AUG, namely the C1 and C2 AUGs are also effectively translated, further reducing availability of translating ribosomes to downstream P AUG. Indeed the removal of the C1 and C2 AUGs led to a corresponding increase in initiation from the P AUG. Initiation at the internal J AUG was also reported and its removal showed a significant decrease in expression from the P AUG, consistent with the previous model implicating reinitiation at the P initiation site after translation of the short J ORF. The inhibitory role of the 5 uAUGs prior to the P AUG were confirmed when all were removed, giving rise to translation almost equal to that at C AUG. Taken together, these results suggest a new model in which the HBV C0 ORF plays a key role in controlling core and polymerase synthesis by repressing core translation and making available more ribosomes to downstream AUGs possibly facilitating translation reinitiation. In addition, the translation of the C0 ORF across the [epsilon] region may also preclude encapsidation, potentially acting as a switch discriminating the pgRNA template between encapsidation and translation. Therefore, the highly conserved [epsilon] region and C0 ORF present an excellent target for molecular based antiviral drugs (antisense oligonucleotides, aptamers, ribozymes) potentially providing new anti HBV drugs.

The Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) is a very sensitive mass-detecting device which is based on changes in to the vibrational frequency of quartz crystals after adsorption of substances to a modified crystal surface. In this study a QCM-based biosensor was developed for the rapid diagnosis of influenza viruses and its suitability and limitations were compared with currently available diagnostic methods on 67 clinical samples (nasal washes) received during the 2005 Australian winter. The type-specific and conserved viral M1 proteins of both A/PR/8/34 and B/Lee/40 viruses were used to prepare polyclonal antisera for the development of an ELISA. The limits of detection of ELISAs for the detection of purified A/PR/8/34 and B/Lee/40 ƒnviruses were 20ƒÝg/mL ƒnand 14 ƒÝg/mL using polyclonal antibodies, and 30 ƒÝg/mL and 20 ƒÝg/mL for monoclonal antibodies, respectively. The limit for detection of each virus was 104 pfu/mL, irrespective of whether antisera or monoclonal antibodies were used for capture. Non-purified cell culture-grown preparations of either virus could be detected at 103 pfu/mL The QCM utilised the same reagents used in ELISAs. However, a number of parameters were then further optimised to improve the sensitivity of the tests. These included blocking of non-specific binding, examination of the effects of flow-cell compression, the role of pH, flow rate, antibody concentration and the addition of protein A to the crystal surfaces of the biosensor. The lowest virus concentration that could be detected with the QCM was 104 pfu/mL for egg-grown preparations of both A/PR/8/34 and B/Lee/40, which could be detected within 30 min. However, conjugation of 13 nm gold nanoparticles to a second detector antibody resulted in a 10-fold increase in sensitivity and a detection limit of 103 pfu/mL that could be determined within 1 h. The direct detection of the influenza viruses in nasal samples was not possible by QCM because of the significant frequency fluctuation that was probably caused by the viscosity of the samples. Therefore, an additional culture step of 12 h was required, which increased the processing time to 2 days. The QCM/nanoparticle method was shown to be as sensitive as the standard cell culture method, and the QCM method as sensitive as the shell vial method. The QCM and QCM/nanoparticle methods were shown to be 81 and 87% as sensitive and both were 100% as specific as the real-time polymerase chain reaction. However, for use in rapid diagnosis, improvements are required to remove frequency fluctuation resulting from the direct use of nasal samples.

"April, 2004" / "List of figures" - inside back cover. / Bibliography: leaves 83-93 / 93, [8] leaves : ill., plates (some col.), photos ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / The specific objectives of this work include: 1. Completion of the GLRaV-1 genome sequence and bioinformatic analysis of the viral open reading frames ; 2. Production of an appropriate GLRaV-1 certification protocol addressing the shortcomings of the current tests for leafroll detection ; 3. Intracellular localisation of the GLRaV-1 gene products via generation of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-fusion constructs, in an attempt to further characterise the function of these proteins. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, School of Agriculture and Wine, Discipline of Wine and Horticulture, 2004

Graduation date: 1995

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) genomes associate with histones in unstable nucleosomes during lytic infections. Nucleosome core particles are 146 base pairs of DNA wrapped around a histone octamer of two molecules of each H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. Histone H1 binds to nucleosomes at DNA entry and exit points. Association with histones is proposed to regulate HSV-1 gene expression. Consistently, HSV-1 transcription transactivators disrupt chromatin and HSV-1 strains mutant in these transactivators are replication impaired or transcriptionally inactive. HSV-1 genomes have dynamic associations with histones. The genomes are not associated with histones in capsids, and input genomes are delivered to nuclear domains depleted of histones. Later during infection, HSV-1 genomes again occupy nuclear domains depleted of histones. Histone synthesis is inhibited during infection and the total level of nuclear histones remains relatively constant. It is therefore unlikely that the histones that first bind to HSV-1 genomes are newly synthesized. The source of the histones that associate with HSV-1 genomes has yet to be addressed. Histones in cellular chromatin normally disassociate, diffuse through the nucleus, and re-associate at different sites. I propose that histones are mobilized from domains of cellular chromatin to those domains containing HSV-1 genomes in cellular attempts to silence HSV-1 gene expression. I additionally propose that HSV-1 further mobilizes histones to counteract such silencing attempts. My hypothesis is that histones are mobilized during HSV-1 infection. In this thesis, I show that linker and core histones are mobilized during HSV-1 infection. Such mobilization results in increases to their free (not bound to chromatin) pools. Linker and core histones were mobilized even when HSV-1 proteins were not expressed, mobilization that likely reflects cellular responses to infection. Histone mobilization was enhanced when HSV-1 IE or E proteins were expressed. This enhanced mobilization was independent of HSV-1 DNA replication and late proteins. Core histones H2B and H3.3 were differentially mobilized, suggesting that different mechanisms may mobilize histones during HSV-1 infection. My discovery of histone mobilization reveals a novel consequence of cell-virus interactions that addresses a previously unexplained aspect of HSV-1 infection.

Le virus de la leucémie bovine (BLV) est un rétrovirus complexe B-lymphotrope, identifié comme l'agent étiologique de la leucose bovine enzootique, une maladie lymphoproliférative qui affecte le bétail. L'infection par le BLV se caractérise par l'absence de virémie due à la latence du virus dans la majorité des cellules infectées. Cette latence résulte de la répression transcriptionnelle de l'expression virale in vivo et favorise très probablement le développement tumoral en permettant aux cellules infectées d'échapper à la réponse immunitaire développée par l'hôte infecté. Dès lors, une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires régulant la latence du virus BLV ainsi que sa réactivation devrait permettre d'envisager de nouvelles stratégies afin de contrer le processus de transformation cellulaire développé par cet oncovirus. Notre laboratoire a précédemment mis en évidence le rôle de l’acétylation des histones dans la régulation transcriptionnelle du BLV. Au cours de ce travail, nous avons poursuivi l’étude du contrôle épigénétique de l’expression génique du BLV en nous focalisant sur une autre modification épigénétique généralement associée à la répression des gènes : la méthylation de l’ADN. Nous avons montré une activation transcriptionnelle du promoteur BLV par différents inhibiteurs de la méthylation de l’ADN. Nous avons également mis en évidence, grâce à la technique du séquençage au bisulfite de sodium, que l’hyperméthylation des régions U3 et R du LTR5’ d’un provirus intégré est associée à un état de latence vraie dans une lignée cellulaire dérivée d’un lymphome (La lignée L267) mais pas à un état de latence dite défective (la lignée YR2). La surexpression des méthyltransférases de l’ADN (DNMTs) DNMT1 et 3A mais pas DNMT3B répriment l’activité du promoteur BLV. Plus encore, les inhibiteurs de DNMTs augmentent de manière synergique l’activation transcriptionnelle du promoteur BLV par la protéine transactivatrice TaxBLV, et ce, de manière dépendante des sites CRE. Au niveau mécanistique, la méthylation des dinucléotides CpG situés aux positions -154 et -129 (situés dans les sites CRE1 et CRE2, respectivement) par rapport au site d’initiation de la transcription (nucléotide +1) abolit in vitro la liaison des facteurs de transcription CREB/CREM/ATF aux sites de liaison CRE1 et CRE2. De manière intéressante, la méthylation spécifique du site CpG -129 est suffisante pour induire une forte répression de l’expression d’un gène rapporteur contrôlé par le promoteur BLV, ce qui suggère que la méthylation d’un site spécifique du promoteur BLV peut réprimer la transcription virale par inhibition directe de la liaison de facteurs de transcription à leur site de reconnaissance et, dès lors, que la méthylation de l’ADN contribue à la latence virale permettant au virus d’échapper au système immunitaire. Notre laboratoire a précédemment déterminé la structure chromatinienne du promoteur du BLV et a mis en évidence la présence de deux sites hypersensibles au sein du LTR5’, inductibles par une combinaison de PMA+ionomycine. Au cours de la seconde partie de notre thèse, nous avons étudié la structure chromatinienne de la région située entre les deux LTRs au sein de provirus intégré dans différentes lignées cellulaires chroniquement infectées, grâce à la technique de l’indirect-end-labelling. Nous avons mis en évidence, dans le génome du provirus intégré dans la lignée cellulaire YR2, trois sites hypersensibles situés respectivement en aval du gène env (SH3) et en amont du LTR3’ (SH4 et SH5). La présence de ces sites est probablement due à l’altération locale de la structure nucléosomale dans ces régions. Nous avons observé qu’un remodelage de la structure chromatinienne de la région hypersensible SH3 dans la lignée YR2 se produit durant l’activation de l’expression génique par un inhibiteur d’histone-désacétylases, la TSA. Nous avons également étudié la structure de la région hypersensible SH3 d’un provirus intégré dans une lignée cellulaire productrice de virions, la lignée NBC-13. L’extension de la région SH3 est similaire à celle observée dans les cellules YR2 en conditions induites par la TSA. Ces résultats suggèrent une transition structurale de la chromatine associée à l’activation de l’expression des gènes viraux. Néanmoins, cette région possède les caractéristiques d’un silencer transcriptionnel lorsqu’il est cloné dans un vecteur rapporteur.

The flavivirus genus is of major concern for world morbidity and mortality and includes viruses causing both encephalitic as well as hemorrhagic diseases. The incidence of Tick-borne encephalitis is increasing in many European countries and several reports have emphasized the expansion of the main vector, Ixodes ricinus. The pattern of vector distribution is also changing in Sweden, which makes it important to set up solid and successful strategies for detection and genetic characterization of novel Swedish TBEV strains. In this study we have generated strategies for detection of broad types of tick-borne flaviviruses in pools of I. ricinus sampled in Sweden. The positive collection on the island of Torö was used to generate a sequence of a complete TBEV genome straight from the arthropod reservoir. This cloned virus was used to construct a self-replicating DNA based sub-genomic TBEV replicon capable of expressing reporter genes. The replicon was used to study the effect of TBEV on neurite outgrowth, which revealed that the MTase domain of NS5 block the formation of the Scribble/Rac1/βPIX protein complex, impairing neurite outgrowth in neuronal growth factor induced PC12 cells. We also demonstrate that TBEV replication is affected by two PDZ binding motifs within NS5 and reveal putative PDZ binding proteins. These interactions might affect cellular pathways and might have a role in flavivirus replication. We also characterize the variable 3´ non-coding region (V3’-NCR) by in silico studies on TBEV. Analysis brings new evidence that V3’-NCR region carries an enhancer element important for different replication/translation dynamics during the viral lifecycle in mammalian and tick cells. We also propose a temperature-sensitive trans-acting riboswitch mechanism; altering the secondary RNA structures of a closed form at lower temperatures and a form open for translation at higher temperatures. This mechanism may explain the low TBEV level observed in sampled ticks. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

Large multi-component structures play an essential role in many crucial cellular processes. The morphogenetic pathway of the long, non-contractile tail of bacteriophage λ provides a superb paradigm for studying the assembly of macromolecular complexes. This thesis describes the structural and functional characterization of two λ tail proteins, gpU and gpV, with the aim of improving our understanding of phage tail assembly and evolution, while also providing a starting point to answering some of the fundamental questions surrounding the assembly and function of other supramolecular structures. Tail Terminator Proteins (TrPs) play an essential role in regulating the length of phage tails, and serve as the interaction surface for phage heads. To provide insight into the mechanisms by which TrPs exert their functions, I have determined the X-ray crystal structure of gpU, the TrP from phage λ, in its biologically relevant hexameric state. The gpU hexamer displays several flexible loops that are involved in head and tail binding. By comparing the hexameric crystal structure of gpU to its previously determined NMR solution structure I was able to identify large structural rearrangements in the protein, which are likely induced upon oligomerization. In addition, I have shown that the hexameric structure of gpU is very similar to the structure of a putative TrP from a contractile phage tail even though they display no detectable sequence similarity. This finding implies that the TrPs of non-contractile tailed phages are evolutionarily related to those of contractile-tailed phages. To determine the mechanism by which tail tubes self-assemble prior to termination, I have determined the NMR solution structure of the N-terminal domain of gpV (gpVN), the protein comprising the major portion of the phage λ tail tube. I found that approximately 30% of gpVN is disordered in solution and that some of these disordered regions are biologically important. Intriguingly, my gpVN structure is very similar to a previously solved tail tube protein from a contractile-tailed phage, once again suggesting an evolutionary connection between these two distinct tail types. A remarkable structural similarity is also seen to the hexameric structure of Hcp1, a component of the bacterial type VI secretion system. This finding, coupled with other similarities between phage and type VI secretion proteins support an evolutionary relationship between these systems. Using Hcp1 as a model, I proposed a mechanism for the oligomerization and polymerization of gpV involving several disorder-to-order transitions. Further supporting the importance of unstructured regions, I have shown that the unstructured linker between the N- and C-terminal domains of gpV is crucial for protein function and that a complete truncation of the C-terminal domain (gpVC) results in a 100-fold decrease in activity compared to full-length gpV (gpVFL). To provide insight into the role of gpVC, I determined its NMR solution structure and showed that it possesses an Ig-like fold, however the function of gpVC remains unknown. Interestingly, the gpVC structure revealed the location of two residues that when mutated were previously shown to either abrogate (G222D) or restore (G222D/P227L) function of gpVFL. In addition to being inactive, I demonstrated that the G222D mutation also exerts a temperature dependent dominant negative phenotype. My preliminary NMR data suggests that G222D causes gpVC to partially unfold and that this destabilized form of the domain interacts with gpVN in a region that is likely involved in both oligomerization and hexamer-hexamer interactions. To further our understanding of how these mutations exert their effect, I determined the NMR solution structure of gpVC-P227L. My structure reveals that the β7-β8 region of gpVC-P227L is altered compared to gpVC-WT and suggests that the conformational changes in gpVC-P227L may protect the domain from protein-folding defects induced by the G222D mutation.