Flaviviruses are a genus of vector-transmitted viruses that are nearly globally distributed, and flavivirus infections can result in life threatening diseases. Many flaviviruses such as Dengue, West Nile, yellow fever and Zika viruses are globally distributed. Zika virus (ZIKV) is a single strand positive-sense RNA virus, and its disease has been linked to Guillain Barré Syndrome (i.e., a debilitating autoimmune disorder that affects the nerves) in adults and congenital birth defects including microcephaly (i.e., a neurodevelopmental disorder due to impaired neural cell proliferation) in newborns. Insect-specific flaviviruses (ISFVs) are understudied given their apathogenic characteristics to humans and animals. However, given their close genetic relationship to vertebrate infectious flaviviruses, ISFVs can serve as a delivery system (i.e., vector) for flavivirus antigenic proteins. Aripo virus (ARPV) is a recently discovered ISFV isolated in Trinidad. We developed a chimeric Zika vaccine, Aripo-Zika, by substituting the pre-membrane and envelope genes of ZIKV into the ARPV genome. Here, we explored (i) the efficacy of Aripo-Zika (AZ) vaccination by evaluating passive transfer of maternal antibodies, (ii) the optimal dosage regimen, (iii) anti-vector immunity to the ARPV backbone, and (iv) the effects of boosters on vaccine efficacy. We also evaluated AZ safety via a co-infection study. Our results show a near linear relationship between increased dose and immunogenicity, with 1011 genome copies being the most effective minimum dose administered. Inclusion of boosters further increased the immunogenicity of AZ. Additionally, prior immunization with AZ showed minimal effects on subsequent immunization with an ARPV-West Nile virus (AWN) vaccine candidate, confirming the applicability of the ARPV backbone to multiple flavivirus vaccine candidates. In vitro co-infection of ZIKV with ARPV, and ZIKV with AZ in African green monkey kidney cells (i.e., Vero-76) indicated ARPV and AZ remain incapable of replication in vertebrate cells, even in the presence of active ZIKV replication. Altogether, our data suggests that the ARPV platform is a safe and effective strategy for the development of flavivirus vaccines. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / Vaccines are one of the best tools available since their initial conception. Vaccines have collectively increased human lifespan and reduced the burden of disease in humans and animals worldwide. Vaccine research aims to create vaccines that have a perfect balance of safety and efficacy. The goal is to produce a vaccine that can generate a strong immune response against the virus(es) of interest, while causing the least harm or side effects from the vaccine. Insect-specific viruses are viruses that infect insect cells, but are unable to replicate in humans or other vertebrate cells. The Auguste Lab has created a chimeric vaccine using the genome of an insect-specific virus called Aripo-Zika virus (AZ) that is genetically related to Zika virus. A person vaccinated with AZ is expected to develop an immune response against Zika but would not have any disease or side effects associated with a Zika infection or virus replication. In order to determine if this vaccine would be safe and effective enough to advance to clinical trials in humans, we must first determine if it is safe in smaller animal models. My studies have five central aims. First, determine the lowest dose of AZ that can be given and still be protective against Zika disease in mouse models. Second, determine if boosters are necessary and if they increase protection. Third, determine if immunity derived from vaccination can be passed down from mother to pups. Fourth, determine if Zika virus and AZ can co-exist in the same cell line without AZ replication occurring. Lastly, determine if mice can be vaccinated with AZ and subsequently with another similar Aripo virus-based vaccine (i.e., Aripo-West Nile) without changing the effectiveness of the subsequent immunization. Our results showed that AZ is able to be passed from mother to pup, 1011 genome copies is the minimum protective dose, and boosters can increase the effectiveness of AZ. We also found that AZ does not replicate in vertebrate cells when it co-exists with ZIKV and subsequent vaccination with Aripo-West Nile does not seem affect the effectiveness of either vaccine.

Les lymphocytes B jouent un rôle central dans l’immunité humorale par leur capacité à présenter des antigènes aux lymphocytes T, à sécréter des cytokines et à se différencier en plasmocytes produisant des anticorps. Ces fonctions peuvent être induites par leur stimulation in vitro. Par leur aptitude à présenter des antigènes indépendamment de la spécificité du récepteur des lymphocytes B (BCR), les lymphocytes B peuvent être utilisés comme cellules présentatrices d’antigènes (antigen-presenting cells, APC) afin d’induire la réponse cellulaire des lymphocytes T CD8+ cytotoxiques spécifiques. L’immunité cellulaire est cruciale pour prévenir les infections contre certains virus et en immunothérapie du cancer. L’objectif général de ces travaux est d’étudier la biologie des lymphocytes B. Plus particulièrement, nous souhaitons comprendre et améliorer leur fonction de présentation d’antigène afin d’utiliser les lymphocytes B comme source alternative d’APC. Dans la première partie de ces travaux, notre attention s’est portée sur la compréhension du mécanisme de présentation croisée par le complexe majeur d’histocompatibilité de classe I (CMH-I) par lequel un épitope de la protéine gp100 du mélanome, inséré dans une nanoparticule pseudo-virale (VLP) composée de la protéine de surface du virus de la mosaïque de la papaye (PapMV), est présenté par les lymphocytes B. Cette VLP est une plateforme vaccinale capable de stimuler le système immunitaire sans l’aide d’adjuvant et facilite la présentation croisée de l’épitope inséré, de façon indépendante de l’activité du protéasome. Les résultats obtenus démontrent que l’apprêtement de l’épitope inséré dans la nanoparticule s’effectue selon une voie de présentation croisée vacuolaire qui dépend de l’activité de la cathepsine S, de l’acidification des lysosomes et requiert l’induction de l’autophagie. Ainsi, nous avons défini plus précisément le mécanisme de présentation croisée par lequel les lymphocytes B apprêtent et présentent un épitope inséré dans la VLP de PapMV. Par la suite, nous avons cherché à améliorer le protocole d’activation in vitro permettant d’amplifier et d’induire les fonctions de présentation d’antigènes des lymphocytes B, dans le but d’utiliser ces cellules pour activer les réponses cellulaires des lymphocytes T CD8+ cytotoxiques. Les stimulations in vitro des lymphocytes B par le CD40 ligand (CD40L) et l’interleukine (IL)-21 ou la combinaison de l’IL-4 et l’IL-21 au lieu de l’activation standard avec le CD40L et l’IL-4 ont été évaluées. Nos résultats ont approfondi nos connaissances de la biologie des lymphocytes B. Nous avons démontré que la stimulation des lymphocytes B avec le CD40L et l’IL-21 augmente leur prolifération, mais mène à leur différenciation en plasmocytes sécrétant des anticorps. Au contraire, la stimulation avec le CD40L et l’IL-4 induit efficacement leur fonction de présentation d’antigènes. La stimulation des lymphocytes B avec le CD40L et la combinaison de l’IL-4 et de l’IL-21 augmente leur prolifération, mène seulement faiblement à leur différenciation en cellules sécrétrices d’anticorps, mais induit efficacement leur fonction de présentation d’antigènes. Nous avons démontré pour la première fois que cette méthode permet de générer des APC puissantes capables d’induire la réponse des lymphocytes T CD8+ cytotoxiques in vitro. Nos résultats nous permettent de postuler que ces cellules pourraient être capables de mener à une réponse cellulaire in vivo. En tant qu’APC efficaces, les lymphocytes B pourraient être utilisés dans une stratégie vaccinale ou être employés comme APC afin d’améliorer les traitements d’immunothérapie du cancer par transfert adoptif de lymphocytes T. Ainsi, les travaux présentés dans cette thèse ont porté tant sur la compréhension des mécanismes de présentation croisée d’un épitope inséré dans la VLP de PapMV par les lymphocytes B, que sur l’amélioration de la méthode permettant d’induire leur fonction de présentation d’antigènes pour activer les lymphocytes T CD8+ cytotoxiques. Ces travaux de recherche fondamentale ont permis de contribuer à des avancées sur les connaissances de la biologie des lymphocytes B. Ils offrent de nouvelles pistes de réflexion quant aux utilisations biotechnologiques des lymphocytes B comme source alternative d’APC pour des applications de recherche fondamentale et clinique telles que la vaccination et les traitements d’immunothérapie du cancer. / B lymphocytes are central to humoral immunity due to their ability to present antigens to T cells, secrete cytokines and to differentiate into antibody-producing plasma cells. These functions can be induced by their in vitro stimulation. Being able to present antigens independently of the specificity of their B cell receptor (BCR), B cells can be used as antigen-presenting cells (APC) to induce specific cytotoxic CD8+ T cell cellular responses. Cellular immunity is crucial to prevent infections against viruses and in cancer immunotherapy. The main aim of this thesis is to study B cell biology. Specifically, we aim to deepen our understanding of their antigen presentation function and improve this function to use B cells as an alternative source of APC. First, we focused on deciphering the class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC-I) cross-presentation mechanism by which an epitope from gp100 melanoma protein, inserted in a virus-like particle (VLP) made of the coat protein of the papaya mosaic virus (PapMV), is presented by B cells. This VLP is a vaccine platform able to stimulate the immune system with no adjuvant and mediate a proteasome independent cross-presentation of the inserted epitope. Our results show that the inserted epitope is processed through a vacuolar pathway dependent on cathepsin S activity, lysosome acidification and requires the induction of autophagy. Thus, we provide a more detailed characterization of the mechanism used by B cells to process and cross-present an epitope inserted in PapMV VLP. Secondly, we aimed to improve the in vitro activation protocol used to expand B cells and induce their antigen presentation functions to use these cells to trigger cytotoxic CD8+ T cell cellular responses. We evaluated the in vitro stimulation of B cells with CD40 ligand (CD40L) and interleukin (IL)-21 or the combination of IL-4 and IL-21 instead of the standard activation method based on CD40L and IL-4. Our results deepen our knowledge of B cell biology. We showed that stimulating B cells with CD40L and IL-21 increases their proliferation but leads to their differentiation in antibody-producing plasma cells. In comparison, the stimulation with CD40L and IL-4 efficiently induces their antigen presentation function. The stimulation of B lymphocytes with CD40L and the combination of IL-4 and IL-21 increases their proliferation, weakly leads to their differentiation in antibody-secreting cells but is very efficient in inducing their antigen presentation function. We show for the first time that this method can generate potent APC able to induce cytotoxic CD8+ T cell responses in vitro. Our results allow us to hypothesize that these cells could be capable of triggering cellular immunity in vivo. As efficient APC, B cells could be used in a vaccination strategy or be employed as APC to improve cancer immunotherapy treatments such as adoptive cell transfer of T lymphocytes. Thus, the work presented in this thesis provides a deeper understanding of the antigen cross-presentation pathway by which B cells process and present an epitope inserted in PapMV VLP. It also reports an improved method to induce antigen presentation function of B cells to stimulate cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. This research work constitutes a leap forward in fundamental B cell research by increasing our knowledge of B cell biology. It also brings new opportunities regarding biotechnological uses of B cells as an alternative source of APC for fundamental and clinical applications such as vaccination and cancer immunotherapy treatments.