Actuellement, l’ectoparasite Varroa destructor est considéré comme la plus grande menace pathogène pesant sur la survie de l’Abeille mellifère (Apis mellifera). En plus d’engendrer des dommages directs aux abeilles par la consommation répétitive de leur corps gras et de leur hémolymphe et par la dépression de leur système immunitaire, les varroas affectent également indirectement les abeilles par la transmission de plusieurs agents pathogènes viraux. En absence de traitements périodiques, la plupart des colonies d’abeilles mellifères s’effondrent dans une période de deux ou trois années suivant l’infestation initiale de Varroas. Face à la pression sélective engendrée par cet Acarien, certaines colonies d’abeilles mellifères ont développé des comportements de résistance. Parmi ces comportements, nous retrouvons le Varroa Sensitive Hygiene (VSH) qui permet aux ouvrières de détecter la présence du parasite dans le couvain d’abeille et de le retirer. De plus, ce comportement est également fortement associé au trait Suppressied Mite Reproduction (SMR), c’est-à-dire, à la baisse du succès reproducteur des varroas dans le couvain d’abeille. Ainsi, les abeilles dotées du comportement VSH sont capables de réduire le niveau d’infestation de leur ruche et de le maintenir à un faible niveau. C’est pourquoi la sélection d’abeilles ayant ce trait comportemental pourrait s’avérer être une solution efficace et durable pour pallier les problèmes engendrés par le Varroa. Cependant, la sélection pour un caractère comporte un certain risque puisqu’il peut advenir que la sélection d’un trait engendre également des répercussions négatives sur d’autres caractères désirables. C’est pourquoi un des objectifs de ce projet est de confirmer la relation entre le VSH et le SMR, et de déterminer les facteurs probables engendrant les problèmes de fertilité du Varroa. Le second objectif quant à lui est de déterminer si la sélection du comportement VSH permet aux colonies de combattre efficacement les varroas sans que cela porte atteinte à la sélection d’autres critères importants en apiculture. / Currently, the ectoparasite Varroa destructor is considered to be the greatest threat to the survival oft he honey bee (Apis mellifera). In addition to causing direct damage to bees through repeated consumption of their fat bodies and depression of their immune system, Varroa also indirectly affects bees through the transmission of several pathogens. In the absence of periodic treatment, most honeybee colonies collapse within two to three years of the initial Varroa infestation. Faced with the selective pressure generated by this mite, some colonies of honey bees have developed a resistance behavior.This behavior, called Varroa Sensitive Hygiene (VSH), allows workers to detect the presence of the parasite in bee brood and remove it. In addition, this behavior is also strongly associated with theSuppressed Mite Reproduction (SMR) trait, i.e., the decrease in Varroa reproduction in bee brood. Thus, bees with VSH behavior are able to reduce the level of infestation of their hive and maintain it at a low level. Therefore, the selection of bees with this behavioral trait could prove to be an effective and sustainable solution to the problems caused by varroas. However, selecting for a trait involves a certain risk since it may happen that the selection of a trait also has a negative impact on other desirable traits.Therefore, the first objective of this project is to confirm the relationship between VSH and SMR, and to determine the likely factors leading to mite fertility problems. The second objective is to determine whether the selection of VSH behavior allows colonies to effectively control Varroa without compromising the selection of other important criteria in beekeeping.

The European honey bee, Apis mellifera, is an important pollinator of horticultural and agricultural field crops, providing ≈ 90% of all commercial pollination services (Genersch et al. 2010). The recent rise in colony loss due to Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) has been a source of concern for both beekeepers and the apiculture industry. One of the factors implicated in CCD is infestation by the ectoparasitic mite, Varroa destructor. Initial efforts to control the mite relied heavily on regular application of miticides without regard to actual mite infestation levels. This approach has led to problems of resistance in the mite and contamination of the hive and hive-products. Because it is unlikely that miticides will be removed as an option for mite management, a precision mite management (PMM) approach using information on the spatiotemporal distribution of the mite to improve sampling and treatments is seen as a viable option, particularly with respect to treatment costs and impacts on the environment. The primary objective of this study was to develop an understanding of the spatiotemporal distribution of the Varroa mite and bee brood within hives for the purpose of developing a PMM approach for the mite. Varroa mite populations were sampled from May to June, 2012 and February to October, 2013. Sampling was conducted with three commonly used sampling methods: soapy water roll (SWR), brood uncapping, and a modified sticky board; brood uncapping, however, was discontinued during the study due to hive the labor cost and harmful effects of this method to the hives. Similar trends in mite population levels were observed using the soapy water roll and sticky board sampling methods. Spearman's nonparametric analysis showed that there was a significant correlation (ρ = 0.47, P<0.001) in mite population levels for the soapy water roll and sticky board methods for sampling conducted from February to September, 2013 (the SWR method was not used in October). This was despite the fact that there was no significant correlation (ρ= -0.03, P = 0.8548) between the two sampling methods during the spring sampling period from February to April, 2013. The observed lack of correlation between the two sampling methods in early spring was likely due to the low population of brood in the hive, which caused the majority of the mites to remain on adult bees. Mites per 100 adult bees, therefore, appear to reflect mite population levels within the hive more closely than mite fall on sticky borad during the February to April sampling period. This suggests that the soapy water roll method is a better method for estimating mite population levels within the hive in the early spring compared with the sticky board method. Geospatial analyses of the distributions of mite fall on the sticky boards were conducted using geostatistics and Spatial Analysis by Distance IndicEs (SADIE). Both analyses showed that mite fall on the sticky board was generally aggregated and the aggregation increased with mite population levels. The average range of the variogram from geostatistical analysis was estimated at 4 sticky board cells; this range value was increased to 5 cells and was used to develop a systematic outside-range sampling protocol for mites on a sticky board. The results showed that the accuracy of the systematic outside-range sampling compared well with that of the traditional sticky board counting method in estimating total mite fall, but required only 60% of the effort (i.e., counting 63 instead of 105 cells). SADIE analysis showed that there is an overall association between the distribution of mite fall on a sticky board and the distribution of brood within a hive. A greater degree of correspondence was also observed in the association of drone and mite distributions during May to June; greater correspondence in worker brood and mite associations was observed in August and September. These differences may be due to relative amounts of the two types of brood present within the hive. A test of the efficacy of precision application of Varroa mite treatment based on the association between drone brood and mite fall resulted in a significantly greater reduction in mite levels on the sticky board using a traditional miticide treatment method compared with the control and precision treatments (𝜒2 =362.571; df = 2; P <0.0001); mite population levels with the precision method, however, were significantly reduced compared with the control. / Master of Science in Life Sciences

The Western Honeybee (Apis mellifera) is among the most versatile species in the world. Its adaptability is rooted in thousands of the differently specialized individuals acting jointly together. Thus, bees that are able to handle a certain task or condition well can back up other individuals less capable to do so on the colony level. Vice versa, the latter individuals might perform better in other situations. This evolutionary recipe for success ensures the survival of colonies despite challenging habitat conditions. In this context, the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor reflects the most pronounced biotic challenge to honeybees worldwide. Without proper treatment, infested colonies rapidly dwindle and ultimately die. Nevertheless, resistance behaviours against this parasite have evolved in some populations through natural selection, enabling colonies to survive untreated. In this, different behaviours appear to be adapted to the respective habitat conditions and may complement each other. Yet, the why and how of this behavioural response to the mite remains largely unknown. My thesis focuses on the biological background of Varroa-resistance traits in honeybees and presents important findings for the comprehension of this complex host-parasite interaction. Based on this, I draw implications for both, applied bee breeding and scientific investigations in the field of Varroa-resistance. Specifically, I focus on two traits commonly found in resistant and, to a lower degree, also mite-susceptible colonies: decreased mite reproduction and the uncapping and subsequent recapping of sealed brood cells. Examining failures in the reproductive success of mites as a primary mechanism of Varroa-resistance, I was able to link them to specific bee behaviours and external factors. Since mite reproduction and the brood rearing of bees are inevitably connected, I first investigated the effects of brood interruption on the reproductive success of mites. Brood interruption decreased the reproductive success of mites both immediately and in the long term. By examining the causes of reproductive failure, I could show that this was mainly due to an increased share of infertile mites. Furthermore, I proved that interruption in brood rearing significantly increased the expression of recapping behaviour. These findings consequently showed a dynamic modulation of mite reproduction and recapping, as well as a direct effect of brood interruption on both traits. To further elucidate the plasticity in the expression of both traits, I studied mite reproduction, recapping behaviour and infestation levels over the course of three years. The resulting extensive dataset unveiled a significant seasonal variation in mite reproduction and recapping. In addition, I show that recapping decreases the reproductive success of mites by increasing delayed developing female offspring and cells lacking male offspring. By establishing a novel picture-based brood investigation method, I could furthermore show that both the removal of brood cells and recapping activity specifically target brood ages in which mite offspring would be expected. Recapping, however, did not cause infertility of mites. Considering the findings of my first study, this points towards complementary mechanisms. This underlines the importance of increased recapping behaviour and decreased mite reproduction as resistance traits, while at the same time emphasising the challenges of reliable data acquisition. To pave the way for a practical application of these findings in breeding, we then investigated the heritability (i.e., the share of genotypic variation on the observed phenotypic variation) of the accounted traits. By elaborating comparable test protocols and compiling data from over 4,000 colonies, we could, for the first time, demonstrate that recapping of infested cells and decreased reproductive success of mites are heritable (and thus selectable) traits in managed honeybee populations. My thesis proves the importance of recapping and decreased mite reproduction as resistance traits and therefore valuable goals for breeding efforts. In this regard, I shed light on the underlying mechanisms of both traits, and present clear evidence for their interaction and heritability. / Die Westliche Honigbiene (Apis mellifera) zählt zu den anpassungsfähigsten Arten der Welt. Diese Anpassungsfähigkeit liegt in der Zusammenarbeit tausender unterschiedlich spezialisierter Individuen begründet. Auf Volksebene können Bienen, die mit einer bestimmten Aufgabe oder Situation gut umgehen können, andere Individuen, die dies weniger gut können, absichern. Andererseits können Letztere womöglich mit anderen Situationen besser umgehen. Dieses evolutionäre Erfolgskonzept sichert das Überleben der Völker selbst unter herausfordernden Habitatbedingungen. Die ektoparasitäre Milbe Varroa destructor stellt in diesem Zusammenhang weltweit die größte biotische Herausforderung dar. Ohne entsprechende Behandlung siechen die Völker rasch dahin und sterben schlussendlich. In einigen Populationen haben sich jedoch Resistenzmechanismen durch natürliche Selektion herausgebildet, die es den Völkern ermöglichen, ohne Behandlung zu überleben. Die verschiedenen Verhaltensweisen scheinen dabei an die jeweiligen Habitatbedingungen angepasst zu sein und sich gegenseitig zu ergänzen. Was diese Reaktion auf die Milben auslöst und wie sie funktioniert ist allerdings noch weitestgehend unbekannt. Meine Dissertation fokussiert den biologischen Hintergrund von Varroa-resistenzmechanismen bei Honigbienen und stellt dabei wichtige Erkenntnisse zum Verständnis dieser komplexen Parasit-Wirt-Beziehung vor. Darauf aufbauend leite ich Implikationen für die angewandte Bienenzucht und wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiet der Varroa-resistenz ab. Hierbei konzentriere ich mich insbesondere auf zwei Merkmale, die häufig in resistenten Völkern zu finden sind: die reduzierte Milbenreproduktion und das Entdeckeln und Wiederverdeckeln bereits verschlossener Brutzellen. Beide Merkmale treten in geringerem Umfang auch in milbenanfälligen Populationen auf und sind daher von besonderem Interesse für jedwede Zuchtbemühung mit dem Ziel der Varroa-resistenz. Durch die Untersuchung von Fehlern in der Reproduktion der Milben, konnte ich diesen Hauptmechanismus der Varroa-resistenz mit Verhaltensweisen der Bienen, sowie äußeren Faktoren in Verbindung setzen. Da die Milbenvermehrung untrennbar mit der Brutaufzucht der Bienen verbunden ist, habe ich zunächst die Einflüsse von Brutunterbrechungen auf den Vermehrungserfolg der Milben untersucht. Diese Untersuchung zeigte auf, dass Brutunterbrechungen den Vermehrungserfolg der Milben sowohl kurzfristig, als auch langfristig herabsetzen. Durch die Untersuchung der jeweils zugrundeliegenden Ursachen gescheiterter Milbenreproduktion konnte ich zeigen, dass dies vor Allem auf einen gesteigerten Anteil infertiler Milben zurückzuführen war. Des Weiteren konnte ich beweisen, dass die Unterbrechung der Brutaufzucht die Ausprägung des Wiederverdeckelns signifikant verstärkte. Folglich zeigten diese Ergebnisse eine dynamische Anpassung der Milbenreproduktion und des Wiederverdeckelns, sowie einen direkten Einfluss der Brutunterbrechungen auf beide Eigenschaften. Um die Plastizität der Ausprägung beider Merkmale genauer zu erklären, untersuchte ich daraufhin drei Jahre lang die Milbenvermehrung, das Verhalten des Wiederverdeckelns, sowie die Befallsentwicklung. Daraus resultierte ein umfangreicher Datensatz, der eine signifikante saisonale Variation der Milbenvermehrung und des Wiederverdeckelns belegte. Ich konnte außerdem eindeutig beweisen, dass das Wiederverdeckeln den Reproduktionserfolg der Milben herabsetzt, indem es die Anteile von verzögert heranwachsenden weiblichen Nachkommen und fehlenden Männchen steigert. Durch Anwendung einer neuartigen Bild-basierten Methode der Brutuntersuchung, konnte ich darüber hinaus zeigen, dass sich sowohl das Ausräumen, als auch das Wiederverdeckeln von Brutzellen auf Brutalter konzentriert, in denen Milbennachwuchs erwartet werden würde. Das Wiederverdeckeln trug jedoch nicht zur Infertilität der Milben bei, was zusammen mit den Ergebnissen meiner ersten Untersuchung auf komplementäre Mechanismen hinweist. Dies unterstreicht die Bedeutung des Wiederverdeckelns und der verminderten Milbenreproduktion als Resistenzmechanismen, hebt aber gleichzeitig auch die Herausforderungen einer verlässlichen Datenerhebung hervor. Um den Weg für die praktische Anwendung dieser Erkenntnisse in der Zuchtarbeit zu ebnen, untersuchten wir daraufhin die Erblichkeit (den Anteil der genotypischen Variation an der beobachteten phänotypischen Variation) der betrachteten Merkmale. Durch das Erarbeiten vergleichbarer Prüfprotokolle und Zusammenführen von Daten aus über 4000 Völkern, konnten wir erstmalig zeigen, dass das Wiederverdeckeln befallener Zellen und der verminderte Vermehrungserfolg der Milben erbliche und damit selektierbare Merkmale in bewirtschafteten Honigbienenpopulationen sind. Meine Dissertation beweist die Relevanz des Wiederverdeckelns und der verminderten Milbenreproduktion als Resistenzmerkmale und damit lohnende Ziele für Zuchtbemühungen. In diesem Zusammenhang beleuchtete ich verschiedene Mechanismen, die der Ausprägung beider Merkmale zugrunde liegen und lieferte eindeutige Beweise für deren Interaktion und Erblichkeit.

Madagascar figure parmi les cinq premiers pays « hot spots » prioritaires pour la conservation de la biodiversité mondiale, Apis mellifera unicolor est son abeille endémique. Depuis 2010, V. destructor a été introduit à Madagascar. Les objectifs de cette thèse étaient : d'étudier la diversité et la structure génétique de l'abeille A. m. unicolor et de l'acarien V. destructor, d'évaluer l'impact de V. destructor sur les colonies, d'étudier le comportement hygiénique des colonies. Nos résultats confirment que l'ensemble des échantillons collectés font partie de la lignée africaine, plus de 99% ont été identifiés comme A. m. unicolor. Malgré sa faible diversité nucléaire, les populations présentent une structuration génétique organisée en deux sous clusters correspondant à des régions géographiques. Un seul haplotype de V. destructor a été détecté, l'haplotype coréen (K1-1). Les études génétiques ont montré une proportion élevée de génotype homozygote (69.5%) et un nombre élevé de MLG sur les Hauts Plateaux par rapport à la côte Est. La présence de MLG particulier sur les Hauts Plateaux conforte l'hypothèse de son introduction dans la capitale. La propagation de V. destructor à Madagascar est relativement lente, sa dispersion reste encore confinée à certaines régions des Hauts Plateaux et de la côte Est. L'impact de parasite est sévère, en un an, la perte des colonies infestées est estimée à 60 %. En se basant sur le pourcentage des cellules nettoyées après 6 h de test à l'aiguille, l'efficacité des colonies à détecter et à désoperculer les cellules est comparable à celles des abeilles hygiéniques africanisées et semble beaucoup plus élevée que celle des abeilles européennes. La présence de colonies hautement hygiéniques au sein des populations offre une opportunité pour un futur programme de sélection de souches tolérantes. / Madagascar is among the top five priorities "hotspots" for global biodiversity conservation. Apis mellifera unicolor was an endemic honey bee. In 2010, Varroa destructor has been reported parasitizing A. m. unicolor. Objectives of this thesis were i) to study the genetic diversity and structure of both A. m. unicolor and V. destructor, ii) to estimate the impact of V. destructor on colonies, and iii) to investigate the hygienic behaviour of colonies. Our results confirm that all honey bees collected belonged to the African lineage and more than 99% were identified as A. m. unicolor. Despite its low nuclear genetic diversity, two genetic clusters have been detected, corresponding to geographic regions. Only one haplotype of V. destructor was detected, the Korean haplotype (K1-1). Genetic studies showed a higher proportion of homozygous genotype (69.5%) and a high number of MLG (Multi- Locus Genotypes) in the High Lands compared to the East coast. The presence of particular MLG on the High Land reinforces the assumption of its introduction into the capital. The spread of V. destructor in Madagascar is relatively slow, its presence remains confined to the High Land and the East coast. The impact of the parasite on A. m. unicolor was severe; with about 60% of colony losses in a year reported. Based on the percentage of cleaned cells observed 6 hour after pin killing broods, the efficiency colonies to detect and uncap cells was comparable to those of Africanised hygienic honey bees and was much higher than those of European honey bees. The detection of highly hygienic colonies is a great opportunity to develop a programme of selection of tolerant honey bee strains.

Thesis (doctoral)--Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 2000. / Includes bibliographical references.

This thesis is focused on the research of the varroatosis disease. In the theoretical part of the thesis I describe the parasitic mite Varroa destructor and its way of infestation. The goal was to document any knowledge gathered on the subject so far and the possibilities of bee vaccination. The practical part of this work included Varroa destructor occurrence monitoring within single hives. The monitoring was carried out in three localities. Localities was called Nedrahovice, Rybník and Kvašťov. The goal was to identify singular hive tolerance to the mite in the various localities based on the strength of the parasitic mite attack. While the hives of the Rybník locality were found to be the most tolerant, the hives of the Nedrahovice locality were found to be the least tolerant of all.

Excessive honey bee colony losses all over the world are believed to be caused by multiple stressors. In this thesis, I characterized and quantified pathogen levels in honey bee colonies, studied their interactions with each other and with their associated parasite vectors, examined factors that influence their combined impacts on honey bees and developed methods to manage honey bee viruses so that colony losses can be minimized. My baseline study of virus prevalence and concentration in healthy and unhealthy (showing visible signs of disease) colonies in Canada showed that seven economically important viruses (DWV, BQCV, IAPV, KBV, SBV, ABPV, and CBPV) were all widely distributed in Canada. Differences in concentration and prevalence of some viruses were found between unhealthy and healthy colonies but these differences may have been due in part to seasonal or regional effects. Studies of the impact of viruses on worker bee populations over winter showed different factors were correlated with bee loss in different environments. Spring concentrations of DWV and mean abundance of Varroa (Varroa destructor) were positively correlated with bee loss and negatively correlated with spring population size in outdoor-wintered colonies. Fall concentration of IAPV was negatively correlated with spring population size of colonies in indoor-wintering environments but not in outdoor-environments. My study showed that it is important to consider location of sampling when associating pathogen loads with bee loss with Nosema and BQCV. Seasonal patterns of parasites and pathogens were characterized for each wintering methods (indoor and outdoor). My results revealed lower ABPV and Nosema ceranae prevalence and lower DWV concentration in genetically diverse than genetically similar colonies. I showed that within colony genetic diversity may be an important evolutionary adaptation to allow honey bees to defend against a wide range of diseases. In laboratory studies, I showed that feeding DWV to larvae in the absence of Varroa causes wing deformity and decreased survival rates of adult bees relative to bees not fed DWV. Finally, I showed that RNA silencing can be used to reduce DWV concentrations in immature and adult bees, reduce wing deformity in emerging adults, and increase their longevity relative to controls.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:32:58Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2008-06-11Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:44:28Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 castagnino_glb_dr_botfvmz.pdf: 159555 bytes, checksum: 0d4941b05eba8f37f9e2e42101623105 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) / O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos do ácido oxálico e de óleos essenciais de plantas como arruda (Ruta graveolens), timol (Thymus vulgaris) eucalipto (Eucalyptus spp) e hortelã (Mentha piperita) na infestação do Varroa destructor em colônias de abelhas Apis mellifera africanizadas. Testes in vitro foram realizados para verificar o efeito desses produtos sobre as abelhas e os ácaros Varroa destructor. Vinte abelhas foram colocadas em gaiola de observação e, no seu interior, um bloco de esponja floral com 10μL, 50μL e 200μL dos diferentes óleos essenciais, segundo os tratamentos: T0: água, T1: óleo de arruda, T2: óleo de hortelã, T3: timol e T4: óleo essencial de eucalipto. Após, as abelhas e os ácaros foram observados por seis horas e quantificadas as mortalidades em decorrência do efeito de cada tratamento. Ambos os testes in vitro foram constituídos de quatro repetições por tratamento. No trabalho de campo, foram realizados seis tratamentos com cinco repetições, aplicados em 30 colônias, sendo: (T0) colméias sem tratamento; (T1) colméias tratadas com óleo essencial de arruda; (T2) timol; (T3) ácido oxálico; (T4) óleo essencial de eucalipto e (T5) óleo de hortelã. Os dados coletados antes da aplicação de cada produto foram confrontados com os obtidos após, verificando os diferentes níveis de mortalidade de varroas, taxa de mortalidade de crias de abelhas, taxa de infestação de varroas em crias e em abelhas adultas. Testes in vitro demonstraram que as substâncias testadas promoveram a mortalidade dos ácaros a partir de 10μL. Em trabalho de campo, constatou-se que as colônias tratadas com óleo de arruda, timol, ácido oxálico, óleo de eucalipto e de hortelã reduziram de forma significativa a mortalidade de crias quando parasitadas pelo ácaro. Os tratamentos com ácido... / This study aimed to evaluate the effects of oxalic acid, and plant essential oils such as arruda (Ruta graveolens), thymol (Thymus vulgaris), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp) and mint (Mentha piperita) in the Varroa destructor infestation in hives of honeybees Apis mellifera africanizated. In vitro tests were performed to determine the effect of these products on bees and Varroa destructor mite. Twenty bees were allocated in observational cages and inside a block of floral foam with 10μL, 50 μL and L 200 μL of different essential oils, according to the treatments: T0: water, T1: arruda oil, T2: mint oil, T3: thymol and T4: eucalyptus essential oil. Afterward, the bees and mites were observed for six hours and mortality recorded. Both in vitro tests were performed in quadruplicate measurements per treatment. Field study was conducted in Santana do Livramento / RS, from 20th June to 21st July, 2005. Six treatments with five repetitions were performed in 30 colonies, where: (T0) beehives without treatment; (T1) beehives treated with arruda essential oil, (T2) thymol, (T3) oxalic acid, (T4) eucalyptus essential oil, and (T5) mint oil. Data collected before the implementation of each product were confronted with those obtained after products administration, checking the different levels of varroas mortality, mortality rate of young bees, infestation rate of varroas in young and adult bees. In vitro tests showed that the tested substances promoted bees and mites mortality in equal or superior amounts of 10μL. In this context, it was found that the colonies treated with arruda oil, thymol, oxalic acid, eucalyptus and mint oil reduced significantly mortality of mite parasitized young bees. Treatments with oxalic acid and thymol promoted a significant reduction in varroas infestation... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

This thesis analyzes mixtures of neem oil and amitraz as alternative control for Varroa destructor, a major pest of Apis mellifera, under different agricultural settings. In organic and conventional farms, the different treatments were applied in colonies to determine impacts on mite loss, colony strength, and honey yield. The results demonstrated neem to have the least effective control on mite mortality, while the neem and amitraz mixture had the most. Furthermore, no long term impacts on queen fecundity and colony strength were noticed between treatments. However, queen fecundity and honey yield was significantly higher in sites with higher flower abundance and diversity, demonstrating higher colony strength in these sites. Further understanding of the relationship between apiculture and agricultural management is vital for conservation of pollinator health and associated habitats.

Microbiomes are an extremely vast and complex network of microorganisms. Bacteriophages are a key factor in the microbial health of an ecological system and impact the evolution of pathogenic bacterial strains. Bacteria and the phages that infect them have an intricate relationship due to the dependency on the bacterial host for phage replication, the ability of the phage to lyse and kill its host, and the horizontal gene transfer between the host and phage. This thesis aimed to understand how bacteria and the bacteriophages that infect them impact an ecological system, with a focus on disease states. By analyzing all bacteriophages targeting a specific host, genomic properties, physical similarities and differences a better understanding of how a group of tailed phages have evolved numerous mechanisms and tools to infect host bacteria was understood. The microbiome study of the Western honey bee Apis mellifera, comparing the microbial communities of colonies infested with the external parasite Varroa destructor against those not infested revealed a need for more directed treatment of Varroa infestations. Through our study we discovered that the honey bee microbiome is much more complex than previously reported, consisting of hundreds of bacterial species. In addition, through comparing infested and healthy colonies, we discovered that infestation of Varroa destructor mites negatively impact the colony microbiome in part by reducing microbes key in digestion and immune health of honey bees. Results in this thesis indicate that two microbes which have not been previously established as part of the key microbes in honey bee guts, Xenorhabdus and Sodalis, may in fact be key to honey bee health as they were both effected negatively by the presence of Varroa mite infestations. These bacteria have been shown to be involved in immune health in other insects, supporting this hypothesis. The final stage of this thesis involved the development of an acaricide bacteriophage therapy designed to target key microbes in the gut of V. destructor. Our therapy was shown to safely treat honey bee colonies infested with this parasite. It can be concluded that while phages are a normal part of the microbial ecosystem of the intestinal tract of organisms, altering that balance by increasing the phage load on the microbiome to target specific beneficial microbes drastically reduces the overall fitness of the organism. Results from this study indicate that multi-target cocktail and single-target phage therapy are an effective low impact biological Varroacide. The discovery of an effective therapy is important and to better understand the results of this thesis, further investigation is required, including a study of the impact of the phage therapy on the mite microbiome, as well as the safety of the therapy to humans.