Vegetable soybean, also known as edamame, has become increasingly popular in the United States due to its excellent nutrition and health benefits. This rising demand has sparked the interest of local farmers in growing edamame. However, a significant problem in edamame production is the poor seedling emergence. This dissertation focuses on three key objectives: 1) exploring the physiological traits linked to the low emergence of edamame seeds; 2) enhancing edamame seedling emergence by identifying genotypes with high vigor and resistance to soil-borne diseases; and 3) determining the optimal temperature for edamame seedling emergence. The study includes newly developed edamame breeding lines from the soybean breeding programs at Virginia Tech and the University of Arkansas, and major edamame cultivars commonly used in the Mid-Atlantic region. The results have identified several genotypes that exhibit high seeding vigor, aging tolerance, and consistently achieve a plant stand of over 80% in both laboratory and field conditions. It is also clarified that edamame's larger seed size leads to lower germination rates and slower emergence, although this is not correlated to total emergence. Moreover, environmental factors, pathogens and temperature, impact emergence. The study highlights that current edamame genotypes are commonly affected by soilborne pathogens, including Rhizoctonia solani, Athelia rolfsii, and Pythium irregulare, leading to seed rot and seedling damping off. However, the research has successfully identified partially resistant varieties characterized by significantly low disease indexes (p<0.05). Furthermore, the optimal temperature range for edamame seedling emergence (25-32°C) was found to be lower than that of other types of soybeans such as grain-type soybeans (29-36°C). This research provides a scientific foundation to improve edamame production practices. / Doctor of Philosophy / Vegetable soybean, also known as edamame, commonly consumed as a healthy snack, is steadily gaining popularity in the United States. However, there are significant challenges in achieving successful edamame plant growth from seeds. This research focuses on three primary objectives: first, understanding the underlying factors contributing to poor seedling emergence in edamame; second, identifying edamame genotypes with exceptional vigor and resistance to soil-borne diseases; and third, determining the ideal temperature conditions for optimal edamame seedling development. To accomplish these goals, a comprehensive study was conducted, encompassing various edamame varieties, including those developed by Virginia Tech and the University of Arkansas. The research identified some edamame genotypes that exhibited exceptional seed vigor, aging tolerance, and consistently achieved plant stands of over 80% under both laboratory and field conditions. Additionally, we also learned that bigger edamame seeds take longer time to grow, but the seed size does not affect the total emergence. Furthermore, we found that some diseases in the soil can hurt edamame seedlings, but we identified a few genotypes that are more resistant to these diseases. Lastly, in terms of temperature, we found that edamame seedlings grow the best between 25-32°C, which is slightly lower than other types of soybeans. Overall, this research helps farmers grow better edamame and brings more delicious and healthy food to our tables.

The growing consumer demand for edamame (vegetable soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr.) in the U.S. has led to current research efforts to increase the production of this nutritious vegetable in the country. This specialty crop has been suggested as an economically attractive alternative to tobacco production, which has decreased in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast areas. Thus, breeding programs led by Virginia Tech and University of Arkansas have been working on the development of edamame cultivars that meet both agronomical and consumer expectations for production and sales in the U.S. In two consecutive years, selected genotypes were tested in the field and by consumers, in order to identify breeding lines that could potentially be released and succeed in the U.S. market. Twenty genotypes were grown in Virginia and Arkansas in 2018 and, among them, ten were selected to be grown in Virginia, Missouri and Mississippi in 2019. Then, sensory evaluation and consumer studies (surveys) were conducted to identify desired/valuable characteristics of edamame and support breeding selection criteria. Participants of the sensory panels were adult volunteers not allergic to soy. Both years, overall acceptability was significantly different among edamame genotypes (p < 0.05) and higher scores were positively associated with 'salty' and 'sweet', but negatively associated with 'bitter', 'sour', 'sulfury/rotten egg' flavor attributes. The a* color coordinate (CIELAB) and green intensity index were significant predictors of appearance liking (p < 0.05) and consumers were willing to pay more for dark green than light green edamame beans. The outcomes of our web-based survey suggested consumers have a positive attitude towards domestically produced edamame and have a higher intention to buy fresh products and edamame in the pods. Additionally, price, availability, and familiarity with the vegetable brand, respectively, seemed to be the most important factors consumers consider in their decision-making process to purchase edamame. These important findings will continue to provide guidance for further research on edamame and can be used to prepare key messages to stakeholders at all stages of the agriculture and food (edamame) systems for the purpose of promoting a sustainable domestic production of this specialty crop in the U.S. / Doctor of Philosophy / The agriculture and food systems have been challenged to develop more nutritious foods and adopt more sustainable practices in order to properly feed our growing global population and improve food security. In this context, foods with sensory characteristics (appearance, aroma, taste, texture) that consumers appreciate have higher chances to succeed in the market, which may reduce food waste. Over the years, several fruit and vegetable crops for U.S. production had their nutritional value, overall quality, and/or agronomic characteristics improved through breeding techniques. In the last decade, edamame (vegetable soybean) has gained attention from plant breeders and food producers due to its increasing consumption and sales in the country. Edamame is a protein-rich legume traditionally consumed in Asia; it has been suggested as a high-value crop for production in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast areas, where tobacco production has decreased significantly. Thus, researchers across the country have been working to develop high-quality edamame seeds that can grow well in the U.S. and can succeed in the domestic market. In 2018, Virginia Tech and University of Arkansas breeding programs selected twenty edamame seeds to be grown in Virginia and Arkansas; then, in 2019, ten of these seeds were grown in Virginia, Missouri, and Mississippi. In sequence, sensory evaluation and consumer studies were performed to support breeding decisions and identify consumers preferences. Overall, edamame described as 'salty' or 'sweet' was preferred over edamame described as 'bitter' or 'sour' and differences in consumer acceptability helped breeders to identify seeds with higher sensory quality. Greener color of edamame beans was associated with more likeable appearance and consumers showed willingness to pay higher price for darker green edamame beans. Our study suggested consumers have a preference for fresh products, for edamame in the pods, and tend to value domestically grown edamame over imported products. Price, availability, and familiarity with the vegetable brand were suggested as the major factors that consumers ponder when purchasing edamame. Our findings will support future research on edamame and can be used to prepare key messages for the purpose of promoting a sustainable production of this nutritious vegetable in the U.S.

Persistent interest in edamame, vegetable soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), by U.S. consumers has continued to fuel the development of a domestic edamame supply chain. Studies have shown edamame to be a nutritious specialty crop with potential to provide economic benefit to local growers. Domestically bred and grown edamame has shown to be preferred by growers and consumers with competitive agronomic traits. While domestic varieties of edamame will encourage growers to produce a product catered towards the domestic market, additional considerations of final product quality are necessary to positively influence the market success. Domestically grown and store-bought edamame samples were utilized to research quality attributes including flavor, taste, and texture of edamame representative of domestic market and supply chain. Solid phase microextraction was utilized for aroma extraction prior to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O) analyses to obtain (1) impactful volatile compounds present, (2) changes in these compounds by stink bug feeding injury, and (3) volatile contributions to sensory characteristics. Sensory methods were utilized to (1) evaluate differences in perception of edamame with and without stink bug feeding injury, and (2) understand important sensory characteristics for domestic edamame. Volatile analysis recognized 16 volatile compounds when investigating edamame genotypes with 14 compounds having significant differences in contents by genotype. Only 10 compounds were consistently detected through GC-O by panelists, so called aroma-active compounds, and only one compound (E)-2-octenal was significantly different in odor intensities across genotypes. Stink bug injured samples showed dramatic differences in volatile profile compared with the not injured counterpart, from mass chromatogram; however, no noticeable differences were perceived by GC-O or sensory difference testing. An instrumental texture analysis method was proven to be sensitive enough to detect the textural differences of edamame beans after processing. The multi-dimensional sensory characteristics including taste, aroma, and texture, were established showing significant differences by edamame variety and growing location. Domestically bred edamame was found to be sweeter, as is preferred by domestic consumers, confirming encouraging breeding outcome. Despite significant differences in edamame volatile profiles by genotype and stink bug feeding injury, sensory discrimination of these differences seems to be less noticeable than changes from taste and texture. Utilizing our findings toward future research and product development will support the domestic edamame supply chain by providing a foundational understanding of quality attributes and their impacts. / Doctor of Philosophy / Edamame, or vegetable soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), has been gaining popularity in the U.S. as plant based and alternative proteins continue to see increased attention. Research has shown edamame to be a nutritious specialty crop with potential to provide economic benefit to local growers. Edamame developed and grown in the U.S. has been shown to be preferred by growers and consumers. Understanding the quality of these products is important for a positive and lasting presence in the market. In this work, locally grown edamame as well as storebought edamame were investigated for flavor and texture. Chemistry methods to research volatile compounds were used to determine impactful flavor compounds, changes in these compounds caused by stink bug injury, and specific aroma of these compounds in edamame. Sensory methods were used to determine differences in edamame injured by stink bugs and to determine taste, flavor, and texture terms related to local edamame. This work identified 16 volatile compounds consistently in edamame samples with 14 being found to vary in amount by edamame genotype. Only 10 volatile compounds were detected through human sniffing results with only one being found to vary in amount of aroma detected by edamame genotype. Edamame showing visual signs of stink bug feeding injury showed different amounts of chemical compounds compared to the uninjured edamame, but aroma detected by human sniffing and sensory evaluation did not show differences. A method using a texture instrument was proven to be sensitive enough to detect even minor differences of edamame beans by texture. Sensory qualities including taste, aroma, and texture, were found to have differences in edamame based on edamame variety and growing location of the edamame. Locally bred and grown edamame was found to be sweeter than comparable edamame, as is preferred by consumer in the U.S. Despite differences in volatile compounds in edamame as identified in volatile analysis by differences in stink bug feeding injury, edamame genotype, and growing location, detection of these differences through aroma and taste by human panelists is not seen in this work. Providing these understanding of sensory qualities and their impact on the edamame will help support the local edamame supply in decision making and product development.

Sustainability of the soybean industry relies on the growth of new industries and the continued improvement of seeds for utilization. Grower adoption and growth of the edamame industry has been slow in part due to insufficient information on its potential profitability and marketability. As such, the first and second objectives of this thesis aimed at 1) determining production costs of hand-harvested fresh edamame enterprise and 2) exploring consumer willingness-to-pay (WTP) for fresh, local, organic, and "on-the-stalk" marketed edamame. Sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose sugars hold tremendous implications for utilization of soybean seeds in livestock, soyfood, and probiotics industries. Current sugar phenotyping methods using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) are costly and inefficient. Therefore, the third objective of this study was to develop calibrations to predict sugar content using near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS). Results showed that labor accounted for 72% of production costs for edamame pods, which largely limits its profit potential. Mean WTP for fresh and local edamame exceeded their frozen and non-local counterparts by 94 and 88 cents, respectively. In addition, mean WTP for organic edamame exceeded non-GMO edamame by 33 cents. Pro-environmental attitudes appeared to be a consistent driver of WTP these three attributes. Meanwhile, a 40-cent discount for "on-the-stalk" edamame compared to pods indicates convenience may also be a factor in edamame marketability. Calibration development for sucrose and stachyose was successful, with R2cal, R2cv, RMSEC, and RMSECV of 0.901, 0.869, 0.516, and 0.596, and 0.911, 0.891, 0.361, and 0.405, respectively. Alternative methods should be investigated for quantification of raffinose. / Master of Science / Sustainability of the soybean industry relies on the growth of new industries and the continued improvement of seeds for utilization. Grower adoption and growth of the edamame industry has been slow in part due to insufficient information on its potential profitability and marketability. As such, the first and second objectives of this thesis aimed at 1) determining production costs of hand-harvested fresh edamame and 2) exploring relative marketing potential of fresh, local, organic, and "on-the-stalk" edamame. Sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose sugars hold tremendous implications for utilization of soybean seeds in livestock, soyfood, and probiotics industries. Current methods of quantifying sugar are costly and time inefficient. Therefore, the third objective of this study was to develop prediction models to estimate sugar content using near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS). Results showed that labor accounted for 72% of production costs for edamame pods, which largely limits its profit potential. Fresh and local edamame showed considerable marketing potential over frozen and non-local edamame. In addition, organic edamame showed marginal marketing benefit over non-GMO. Pro-environmental attitudes were an important driver of these results. Meanwhile, on-the-stalk edamame shows poor marketing potential, likely due to preference for convenience of food preparation in the U.S. NIRS prediction models for sucrose and stachyose showed strong predictive accuracy and low error, suggesting potential for implementation. The prediction model for raffinose, however, remained poor.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:28:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2008-02-12Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:37:31Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 castoldi_r_me_jabo.pdf: 271551 bytes, checksum: 70eaecbffef73c494f584a13c0f4a3d6 (MD5) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Objetivou-se avaliar o desempenho de cinco genótipos de soja-hortaliça, quanto às características agronômicas, funcionais e antinutricionais. O experimento foi conduzido em campo, no Setor de Olericultura e Plantas Aromático-Medicinais na UNESP-FCAV. O delineamento experimental adotado foi o de blocos ao acaso com cinco tratamentos (genótipos) e quatro repetições, sendo que cada parcela experimental foi constituída por quatro linhas de plantio com seis metros de comprimento e 0,60 m entrelinhas, considerando-se para avaliação 20 plantas por parcela, das duas linhas centrais. Para a formação das mudas, utilizou-se do sistema de semeadura em bandejas de poliestireno expandido, com capacidade para 128 células, contendo substrato Plantmax Hortaliças® HT. As mudas foram transplantadas aos 10 dias após a semeadura. Avaliaram-se os genótipos JLM003, JLM004, JLM010, JLM024 e JLM030 quanto às características: precocidade; altura de inserção da primeira vagem (cm); número de vagens por planta; número de sementes por vagem; massa fresca das vagens por planta (g); massa fresca de 100 sementes (g); produtividade total estimada de grãos imaturos (kg ha-1); teor de umidade; proteínas; lipídeos; cinzas; carboidratos; isoflavonas e inibidores de tripsina Kunitz (KSTI). Na avaliação das principais características agronômicas, funcionais e antinutricionais, nas condições deste experimento, pode-se concluir que o genótipo de soja-hortaliça JLM010 é o mais recomendado para a região de Jaboticabal-SP, por apresentar melhores características agronômicas para produção como hortaliça (136,04 g para massa fresca das vagens por planta, 92,52 g para massa fresca de 100 sementes e 11.121,22 kg ha-1para produtividade total estimada de grãos imaturos) e também se destacar quanto às propriedades funcionais. / The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of five genotypes of vegetable soybean with respect to agronomic, functional and antinutritional characteristics. The experiments were conducted in the field, in the Sector of Vegetable Crops and Aromatic Medicinal Plants, in the UNESP-FCAV. The experimental design adopted was a randomized block design with five treatments (genotypes) and four repetitions. Each experimental parcel comprised four planting rows of six meters in length and 0.60 m between rows, and 20 plants per parcel, from the two center rows, were evaluated. Seedlings were started in Polystyrene trays with 128 cells containing the substrate Plantmax Hortaliças® HT. The seedlings were transplanted at 10 days after planting. The genotypes JLM003, JLM004, JLM010, JLM024 and JLM030 were evaluated with respect to the following characteristics: precocity, height to first pod (cm), number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, fresh weight of pods per plant (g), fresh weight of 100 seeds (g), estimated total productivity of immature seeds, moisture content, proteins, lipids, ash, carbohydrates, isoflavones and Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KSTI). In the evaluated of principals characteristics agronomic, functional and antinutritional, in the conditions this study, conclude that: 1) the genotype JLM010 was found to be the most recommended for the region of Jaboticabal-SP, as it showed better agronomic characteristics for production as a vegetable (136,04 g for fresh weight of pods per plant, 92,52 g for fresh weight of 100 seeds and 11.121,22 kg ha-1 for estimated total productivity of immature seeds) and displayed better functional characteristics and also highlight on the functional properties.

Resumo: Objetivou-se avaliar o desempenho de cinco genótipos de soja-hortaliça, quanto às características agronômicas, funcionais e antinutricionais. O experimento foi conduzido em campo, no Setor de Olericultura e Plantas Aromático-Medicinais na UNESP-FCAV. O delineamento experimental adotado foi o de blocos ao acaso com cinco tratamentos (genótipos) e quatro repetições, sendo que cada parcela experimental foi constituída por quatro linhas de plantio com seis metros de comprimento e 0,60 m entrelinhas, considerando-se para avaliação 20 plantas por parcela, das duas linhas centrais. Para a formação das mudas, utilizou-se do sistema de semeadura em bandejas de poliestireno expandido, com capacidade para 128 células, contendo substrato Plantmax Hortaliças® HT. As mudas foram transplantadas aos 10 dias após a semeadura. Avaliaram-se os genótipos JLM003, JLM004, JLM010, JLM024 e JLM030 quanto às características: precocidade; altura de inserção da primeira vagem (cm); número de vagens por planta; número de sementes por vagem; massa fresca das vagens por planta (g); massa fresca de 100 sementes (g); produtividade total estimada de grãos imaturos (kg ha-1); teor de umidade; proteínas; lipídeos; cinzas; carboidratos; isoflavonas e inibidores de tripsina Kunitz (KSTI). Na avaliação das principais características agronômicas, funcionais e antinutricionais, nas condições deste experimento, pode-se concluir que o genótipo de soja-hortaliça JLM010 é o mais recomendado para a região de Jaboticabal-SP, por apresentar melhores características agronômicas para produção como hortaliça (136,04 g para massa fresca das vagens por planta, 92,52 g para massa fresca de 100 sementes e 11.121,22 kg ha-1para produtividade total estimada de grãos imaturos) e também se destacar quanto às propriedades funcionais. / Abstract: The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of five genotypes of vegetable soybean with respect to agronomic, functional and antinutritional characteristics. The experiments were conducted in the field, in the Sector of Vegetable Crops and Aromatic Medicinal Plants, in the UNESP-FCAV. The experimental design adopted was a randomized block design with five treatments (genotypes) and four repetitions. Each experimental parcel comprised four planting rows of six meters in length and 0.60 m between rows, and 20 plants per parcel, from the two center rows, were evaluated. Seedlings were started in Polystyrene trays with 128 cells containing the substrate Plantmax Hortaliças® HT. The seedlings were transplanted at 10 days after planting. The genotypes JLM003, JLM004, JLM010, JLM024 and JLM030 were evaluated with respect to the following characteristics: precocity, height to first pod (cm), number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, fresh weight of pods per plant (g), fresh weight of 100 seeds (g), estimated total productivity of immature seeds, moisture content, proteins, lipids, ash, carbohydrates, isoflavones and Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KSTI). In the evaluated of principals characteristics agronomic, functional and antinutritional, in the conditions this study, conclude that: 1) the genotype JLM010 was found to be the most recommended for the region of Jaboticabal-SP, as it showed better agronomic characteristics for production as a vegetable (136,04 g for fresh weight of pods per plant, 92,52 g for fresh weight of 100 seeds and 11.121,22 kg ha-1 for estimated total productivity of immature seeds) and displayed better functional characteristics and also highlight on the functional properties. / Orientadora: Leila Trevizan Braz / Coorientadora: Mercedes Concórdia Carrão-Panizzi / Banca: Arthur Bernardes Cecílio Filho / Banca: Marcelo Álvares de Oliveira / Mestre