Kaposi's sarcoma (KS)-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), also called human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8), has been been identified in all epidemiological forms of KS as well as in tissue obtained from primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) and Multicentric Castleman's disease (MCD). The KSHV genome contains several putative oncogenes, suggesting that viral infection may induce cellular transformation and tumorgenesis. Herpesviruses encode a number of different surface glycoproteins, which are involved in virus-host interactions. Studies have shown that the viral glycoproteins H and L form a complex that plays an essential role in viral attachment and cell to cell fusion. Both glycoproteins have been identified in KSHV and were expressed in mammalian cells. Expression studies revealed that KSHV gH and gL exhibit similar features to those seen in other herpesviruses. However, KSI-IV gL appears to traffic independently and may function in cell to cell fusion processes even when expressed alone. KSI-IV de novo infections are rare and the lack of a reliable cell culture system has delayed pathogenesis studies. As part of this thesis the hepatoma cell line HepG2 has been shown to allow limited KSHV infection, as judged by nested PCR. Studies have shown that infection leads to increased apoptosis, although viral replication could not be detected. Furthermore, Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) appeared to modulate the ability of KSHV to infect HepG2 cells. Finally, a microtitre plate assay has been established for the quantification of the KSHV genome. A comparison of plasma and serum samples obtained at the same time point showed that plasma is more reliable in testing for KSHV, the DNA copy number in serum samples being reduced up to 10 fold. In conclusion, this new assay is a potentially useful tool for both diagnostic proposes and research studies.

Herein we describe a novel APC population in mice, designated LAPCs. LAPCs are BM-derived myeloid leukocytes, distinctive from other immune cells. As APCs, LAPCs respond to various virus infections including VACV, CBV3 and influenza A virus. Notably, influenza virus-activated LAPCs capture Ag in the lungs, and migrate into the DLN and spleen with delayed kinetics compared to DCs. In the DLN, influenza virus-activated LAPCs co-localize with T cells and selectively induce Th2 effector cell polarization by cell-cell contact-mediated modulation of GATA-3 expression. In support of a role for LAPCs in anti-influenza T2 immunity, adoptive transfer experiments revealed that influenza virus-activated LAPCs selectively augmented Th2 effector T cell responses in the DLN, increased production of anti-influenza immunoglobulin (Ig) including IgE in peripheral blood and increased levels of IL-5 and eotaxin in BAL fluid in recipient influenza infected mice. LAPC recipient mice exhibited exacerbated pulmonary pathology, with delayed viral clearance and enhanced pulmonary eosinophilia. Collectively, these results highlight the importance of LAPCs as novel immuno-modulators of T2 immunity during influenza A virus infection, which is implicated in both immunoprotection and immunopathology. Subsequently, we examined the immuno-modulatory effect of type-I IFN, specifically IFN-on the immune response against pulmonary influenza virus infection. We have provided evidence that a single dose of IFN- (1×105U) augmented DC migration but inhibited LAPC migration into the DLN. mIFN- treatment skewed the immune balance toward T1 immunity, identified as enhanced T1 effector T cell responses (Th1 and CTL) but diminished T2 effector T cell responses (Th2) in influenza virus infected mice. Finally, IFN- treated mice showed accelerated viral clearance and diminished pulmonary eosinophilia in lung tissue compared to control mice. Taken together, these results suggest that anti-influenza T1 and T2 immunity may be modulated differently by DCs and LAPCs, respectively. Furthermore, these results support the therapeutic potential of type I IFNs, especially IFN-, as an alternative antiviral to control both viral replication and immunopathology induced by influenza A virus infection in humans.

Dengue viral infection is a mosquito-borne disease with four distinct strains, where the interactions between these strains have implications on the severity of the disease outcomes. The two competing hypotheses for the increased severity during secondary infections are antibody dependent enhancement and original antigenic sin. Antibody dependent enhancement suggests that long-lived antibodies from primary infection remain during secondary infection but do not neutralize the virus. Original antigenic sin proposes that T cells specific to primary infection dominate cellular immune responses during secondary infections, but are inefficient at clearing cells infected with non-specific strains. To analyze these hypotheses, we developed within-host mathematical models. In previous work, we predicted a decreased non-neutralizing antibody effect during secondary infection. Since this effect accounts for decreased viral clearance and the virus is in quasi-equilibrium with infected cells, we could be accounting for reduced cell killing and the original antigenic sin hypothesis. To further understand these interactions, we develop a model of T cell responses to primary and secondary dengue virus infections that considers the effect of T cell cross-reactivity in disease enhancement. We fit the models to published patient data and show that the overall infected cell killing is similar in dengue heterologous infections, resulting in dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever. The contribution to overall killing, however, is dominated by non-specific T cell responses during the majority of secondary dengue hemorrhagic fever cases. By contrast, more than half of secondary dengue fever cases have predominant strain-specific T cell responses. These results support the hypothesis that cross-reactive T cell responses occur mainly during severe disease cases of heterologous dengue virus infections. Finally, using the results from our within-host models, we develop a multiscale model of dengue viral infection which couples the within-host virus dynamics to the population level dynamics through a system of partial differential equations. We analytically determine the relationship between the model parameters and the characteristics of the solutions, and find thresholds under which infections persist in the population. Furthermore, we develop and implement a full numerical scheme for our model. / Ph. D. / Dengue viral infection is a mosquito-borne disease with four distinct strains, where the interactions between these strains have implications on the severity of the disease outcomes. The two competing hypotheses for the increased severity during secondary infections are antibody dependent enhancement and original antigenic sin. Antibody dependent enhancement suggests that long-lived antibodies from primary infection remain during secondary infection but do not neutralize the virus. Original antigenic sin proposes that T cells specific to primary infection dominate cellular immune responses during secondary infections, but are inefficient at clearing cells infected with non-specific strains. To analyze these hypotheses, we developed within-host mathematical models. In previous work, we predicted a decreased non-neutralizing antibody effect during secondary infection. Since this effect accounts for decreased viral clearance and the virus is in quasi-equilibrium with infected cells, we could be accounting for reduced cell killing and the original antigenic sin hypothesis. To further understand these interactions, we develop a model of T cell responses to primary and secondary dengue virus infections that considers the effect of T cell cross-reactivity in disease enhancement. We fit the models to published patient data and show that the overall infected cell killing is similar in dengue heterologous infections, resulting in dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever. The contribution to overall killing, however, is dominated by non-specific T cell responses during the majority of secondary dengue hemorrhagic fever cases. By contrast, more than half of secondary dengue fever cases have predominant strain-specific T cell responses. These results support the hypothesis that cross-reactive T cell responses occur mainly during severe disease cases of heterologous dengue virus infections. Finally, using the results from our within-host models, we develop a multiscale model of dengue viral infection which couples the within-host virus dynamics to the population level dynamics through a system of partial differential equations. We analytically determine the relationship between the model parameters and the characteristics of the solutions, and find thresholds under which infections persist in the population. Furthermore, we develop and implement a full numerical scheme for our model.

No description available.

<p>Naturally occurring CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (TReg) are a cell lineage that develops in the thymus and exits to the periphery, where they represent 5-10% of the peripheral CD4+ T cell population. Phenotypically, they are characterized by the expression of the cell surface markers CD25, as known as the IL-2 receptor alpha chain, glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor (GITR), and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4), as well as forkhead box P3 (Foxp3), a transcription factor considered to be the most specific TReg marker. Functionally, TReg cells are defined by their ability to suppress the activation of multiple cell types including CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and dendritic cells (DCs). Suppression can be achieved by the production of immunosuppressive cytokines or direct cell-to-cell contact, with these mechanisms directly affecting suppressed cells or indirectly affecting them by modulating antigen presenting cells (APCs). The suppressive abilities of TReg cells are crucial in maintaining dominant tolerance--the active, trans-acting suppression of the immune system for the prevention of autoimmune diseases. In addition to preventing autoimmune diseases, studies have also demonstrated critical roles for TReg cells in down-modulating anti-tumor immunity, suppressing allergic diseases, such as asthma, and achieving transplant tolerance. Recent studies have also demonstrated roles for TReg cells during pathogen infection, which will be the focus of this thesis.</p><p>Studies examining TReg cells during infection have largely focused on chronic infection models. These studies have shown that TReg cells can affect responses to pathogens in various ways that can be beneficial or detrimental for either the host or the invading pathogen. In some infections, TReg cells downregulation effector responses, which can lead to pathogen persistence and, in some cases, concomitant immunity. TReg cell-mediated suppression can also reduce immunopathology at sites of infection, which can occur as a result of a vigorous anti-pathogen immune response. </p><p>In contrast to chronic infection, how TReg cells behave and function following acute infections remains largely unknown as, to date, very few studies have been conducted. Current work with acute infection models has indicated that TReg cells affect immune responses in some acute infection models, but not in all. Furthermore, the results of these studies have implicated that current approaches to examine TReg cells during acute infection by depleting the total TReg cell repertoire, as opposed to targeting pathogen-specific TReg cells, may not be ideal. Finally, it is unclear what happens to activated TReg cells following the resolution of infection. </p><p>Due to the lack of knowledge about the role of pathogen-specific TReg cells during acute infection, we sought to employ a different approach to address some of the outstanding questions in the field. Here, we utilized CD4+ non-TReg and TReg cells from T cell receptor (TCR) transgenic mice that recognize a pathogen-specific epitope found in three different models of acute viral infection: recombinant vaccinia virus, recombinant adenovirus, and influenza. Using this model system, we were able to track pathogen-specific TReg cells following acute viral infection to determine their kinetics during the course of infection, as well as their influence on CD4+ non-TReg cells during different times after infection. We also employed major histocompatibility complex (MHC) Class II tetramer technology to track the fate of endogenous pathogen-specific TReg cells following infection with influenza. </p><p>Using these models systems, we show that pathogen-specific TReg cells can be activated and expand upon acute viral infections in vivo. The activated TReg cells then contract to form a "memory" pool after resolution of the infection. These "memory" TReg cells expand rapidly upon a secondary challenge, secrete large amounts of IL-10, and suppress excessive immunopathology, which is elicited by the expansion of non-TReg cells, via an IL-10-dependent mechanism. The work presented in this thesis reveals a previously unknown "memory" TReg cell population that develops after acute viral infections and may help design effective strategies to circumvent excessive immunopathology.</p> / Dissertation

Chronic viral infection is a significant burden on healthcare systems worldwide. Robust anti-viral immune responses are essential for viral clearance. Persistent viruses use a variety of mechanisms to evade immune surveillance including the upregulation of host immunesuppressive factors. Secreted fibrinogen-like protein 2 (FGL2) has been identified as an inhibitory effector molecule in suppressing immune responses in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) disease. In a murine model of chronic infection caused by Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) clone 13, we demonstrate that mice deficient in Fgl2 have increased numbers of mature antigen-presenting cells (APC), improved virus-specific cytotoxic T cell immunity and enhanced viral clearance when compared to wild-type mice. These results highlight the importance of the FGL2 inhibitory pathway in immune evasion and provide a rationale to investigate the effects of blocking FGL2 as a novel immune therapeutic in patients suffering from persistent infections.

Chronic viral infection is a significant burden on healthcare systems worldwide. Robust anti-viral immune responses are essential for viral clearance. Persistent viruses use a variety of mechanisms to evade immune surveillance including the upregulation of host immunesuppressive factors. Secreted fibrinogen-like protein 2 (FGL2) has been identified as an inhibitory effector molecule in suppressing immune responses in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) disease. In a murine model of chronic infection caused by Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) clone 13, we demonstrate that mice deficient in Fgl2 have increased numbers of mature antigen-presenting cells (APC), improved virus-specific cytotoxic T cell immunity and enhanced viral clearance when compared to wild-type mice. These results highlight the importance of the FGL2 inhibitory pathway in immune evasion and provide a rationale to investigate the effects of blocking FGL2 as a novel immune therapeutic in patients suffering from persistent infections.

Cytokine profiles during cowpox virus (CPV) strain Brighton and vaccinia virus (VV) strain Western Reserve infections were characterized in intranasal (i.n.) and intraperitoneal (i .p.) models in BALB/c mice. The time-course of induction and effects of cidofovir treatment on interferon (IFN)-γ, IFN-γ inducible protein (IP)-10, interleukin (IL)-6, and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 were determined. The four models have distinct patterns of cytokine induction. CPV i.p. and VV i.n. infections showed increased induction throughout the time studied. CPV i.n. infection resulted in delayed induction of IFN-γ and IP-10. Cytokine levels were fairly constant during VV i.p. infections. Cidofovir treatment (100 mg/kg/day i.p. for 2 days) significantly reduced certain cytokine levels in the four models. Treatment did not affect IP-10 in the CPV i.n. model; IFN-γ and IP-10 in the CPV i.p. model; or IL-6, IP- 10, and MCP-1 in the VV i.p. model. Characterization of cytokine responses has implications for understanding the immune responses and pathogeneses of viral infections in these models.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(社会健康医学) / 甲第24806号 / 社医博第130号 / 新制||社医||12(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科社会健康医学系専攻 / (主査)教授 松田 文彦, 教授 YOUSSEFIAN Shohab, 教授 永井 洋士 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Public Health / Kyoto University / DFAM

microRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression. This class of 18-25 nucleotide-long non-coding RNAs has been found to play critical roles in the modulation of a wide spectrum of cellular processes including immunity, development, and metabolism. They modulate their interactions by binding to the 3’ untranslated region of the target messenger RNA to mediate the repression of gene expression. Given their emerging critical roles in the regulation of biological processes, it is not surprising that miRNAs play a significant part in modulating host-virus interactions. Viruses are obligate parasites that hijack the host cellular machinery and processes to promote their life cycle and their propagation. Emerging evidence suggests that miRNAs add an extra regulatory layer to fine-tune viral pathogenesis. This offers novel opportunities not only to delineate the crosstalk between the host and the virus but also allows for the development of novel therapeutics and the identification of novel potential biomarkers of viral infection. Herein, we examine the roles of various miRNAs in the modulation of host-virus interactions. In this thesis, we identify a polycistronic miRNA cluster (miR-183, miR-96, and miR-182) to possess antiviral properties against RNA viruses by augmenting innate immune responses to viral infection. We as well identify miR-383 to possess novel antiviral potential against Dengue virus (DENV), through its targeting of PLA2G4A, a pro-viral host factor essential for the production of infectious particles. Finally, we examine miR-185’s role in the modulation of SARS-CoV-2 infection where we show that miR-185’s regulation of fatty acid and cholesterol metabolism suppresses the virus’s entry and propagation in lung and liver cells. Collectively, the findings in this thesis demonstrate the critical role that miRNAs play in the modulation of host-virus interaction through modifying the host’s cellular environment essential for the regulation of viral pathogenesis.