The growing number of micro generation devices in the electrical network is leading many to consider that these devices can no longer be considered as fit and forget, but should instead be considered as having a demonstrable network impact which should be predicted and utilised. One of the techniques for considering the impacts of these devices is the Virtual Power Plant (VPP). The VPP is the aggregation of all the Distributed Generation (DG) connected into the network up to and including the connection voltage of the VPP, such that the cumulative power up the voltage levels can be seen in the single VPP unit, rather than across a broad spread of devices. One of the crucial tasks in characterising the VPP, developed in this work, is the ability to correctly predict and then aggregate the behaviour of several technology types which are weather driven, as a large proportion of DG is weather driven. Of this weather driven DG, some can only typically be dispatched with modification and the rest cannot be dispatched at all. The aggregation of the VPP as part of the electrical network is also developed, as the constraints of the network and the reliability of the network cannot be overlooked when considering the aggregation of the VPP. From a distribution network operator's (DNO) perspective, these characterisation models can be used to highlight problems in the network introduced by the addition of DG, but are also generally utilitarian in their role of predicting the power output (or negative load) found throughout the network due to DG. For a commercial agent interested in selling energy, these models allow for accurate predictions of energy to be determined for the trading period. A VPP agent would also be adversely affected by line failure in the network, leading to the development of an N-1 analysis based upon reliability rates of the network, which is used as the basis for a discussion on the impacts of single line failure and the mitigation available through feedback from the DNO.

Yes / The penetration of renewable energies in the energy market has increased significantly over the last two decades due to environmental concerns and clean energy requirements. The principal advantage of renewable energy resources (RESs) over non-RESs is that it has no direct carbonisation impact on the environment and that it has none of the global warming effects which are caused by carbon emissions. Furthermore, the liberalisation of the energy market has led to the realisation of the virtual power plant (VPP) concept. A VPP is a unified platform for distributed energy resources that integrates the capacities of various renewable energies together for the purpose of improving power generation and management as well as catering for the buying and selling of energy in wholesale energy markets. This review study presents a comprehensive review of existing approaches to planning, operation and scheduling of the VPP system. The methodologies that were adopted, their advantages and disadvantages are assessed in detail in order to benefit new entrants in the power system and provide them with comprehensive knowledge, techniques and understanding of the VPP concept.

Electrical demand flexibility is a key component to enabling a low cost, low carbon grid. In this study, residential electricity demand and flexibility is explored from the lens of a virtual power plant operator. Individual and aggregate asset consumption is analysed using a pool of >10,000 household assets over 6 years. Key safety, comfort and availability limitations are identified per asset type. Pool flexibility is analysed using a combination of past data and principled calculations, with flexibility quantified for different products and methods of control. A machine learning model is built for a small pool of 200 assets, predicting consumption 24 hours in advance. Calculated flexibility and asset limitations are then used within an optimisation model, leveraging flexibility and combining the value of self consumption and day ahead price optimisation for a residential home. / Flexibilitet i efterfrågan av elektricitet är essentiellt för att möjliggöra ett elnät med låga kostnader och utsläpp. I denna studie undersöks elanvändning av en bostad samt flexibilitet i perspektiv från en virtuell kraftverksoperatör. Individuell och sammanlagd konsumtion analyseras genom tillgång av data från >10 000 bostäder över 6 år. Begränsningar av säkerhet, komfort och tillgänglighet identifieras per tillgångstyp. Sammanlagda flexibiliteten analyseras genom en kombination av tidigare data och principiella beräkningar, med flexibilitet kvantifierad för diverse produkter och kontrollmetoder. En modell för maskininlärning utvecklades för 200 bostäder och förutser konsumtion 24 timmar i förväg. Den beräknade flexibiliteten och tillgångsbegränsningar används sedan i en optimeringsmodell som utnyttjar flexibilitet och kombinerar värdet av självkonsumtion och optimerat pris för nästkommande dag för ett bostadshus.

Renewable energy resources are projected to claim a larger part of the Swedish power mix in coming years. This could potentially increase frequency fluctuations in the power grid due to the intermittency of renewable power generating resources. These fluctuations can in turn cause issues in the power grid if left unchecked. In order to resolve these issues, countermeasures are employed. One such countermeasure is for private actors to regulate power; in exchange they are financially compensated through reserve markets. The reserve market studied in this thesis is called Frequency Containment Reserve – Normal (FCR-N). Currently hydroelectric power provides almost all regulated power within this market. As the need for power regulation is expected to increase in the coming years, there exists a need to study other technologies capable of power regulation. This thesis focuses on one such technology called, virtual power plants. While virtual power plants are operating in other parts of the world, there were no virtual power plants operating in Sweden. As a result, the nature of an optimized virtual power plant and the economic benefits of optimization had not been previously investigated. To answer such questions, this thesis modelled and optimized the revenue of a virtual power plant. The examined virtual power plant consisted of cooling chillers, lighting, ventilation fans and a battery energy storage system. Where varying their total power demand allowed for them to provide power regulation. With the virtual power plant market in Sweden being in its infancy, this thesis serves as a first look into how an optimized virtual power plant using these components could function. To put the economic results of the optimization into context, a comparative model was constructed. The comparative model was based on a semi-static linear model. This is what the thesis’s industry partner Siemens currently uses. For the simulated scenarios, the optimized model generated at least 85% higher net revenues than the semi-static linear model. The increase in revenue holds potential to increase the uptake of virtual power plants on the Swedish market, thus increasing stability in the power grid and easing the transition to renewable energy. / Då förnyelsebara energiresurser antas omfatta en större roll av den svenska elproduktionen inom kommande år, så kan detta leda till att frekvensfluktueringar i elnätet ökar. Detta sker på grund av att den oregelbundna elproduktionen från förnyelsebara energiresurser inte matchas med konsumtion. Om dessa fluktueringar inte hanteras kan det i sin tur leda till skadliga störningar inom elnätet. För att motverka detta och således stabilisera elnätet används diverse lösningar. Ett sätt att åstadkomma ökad stabilisering i elnätet är att låta privata aktörer kraftreglera. De privata aktörerna som står för kraftregleringen gör detta i utbyte mot ekonomisk kompensation, genom att delta i reservmarknader. Den reservmarknad som studerades inom detta examensarbete kallas Frequency Containment Reserve – Normal (FCR-N). I nuläget står vattenkraft för nästan all reglerad kraft inom den här marknaden. Men då behovet av kraftreglering antas öka inom kommande år så behövs nya teknologier studeras som kan bistå med kraftregleringen. Den studerade teknologin inom detta examensarbete var ett virtuellt kraftverk. Då inga virtuella kraftverk var i bruk i Sverige då denna uppsats skrevs fanns det osäkerheter kring hur man optimalt styr ett virtuellt kraftverk och de ekonomiska fördelarna som detta skulle kunna leda till. Detta examensarbete modellerade och optimerade ett virtuellt kraftverk ur ett vinstperspektiv. Det virtuella kraftverket var uppbyggt utav kylmaskiner, ljus, ventilationsfläktar och ett batterisystem. Deras kraftkonsumtion styrdes på ett sådant sätt som lätt de bidra till kraftreglering på reservmarknaden. För att kunna analysera de ekonomiska resultaten från det optimerade virtuella kraftverket, så byggdes en jämförelsemodell. Denna jämförelsemodell är baserad på en semistatisk linjär modell, vilket är det som examensarbetets industripartner Siemens använder. Den ekonomiska jämförelsens resultat påvisade att inkomsten från den optimerade modellen var minst 85% högre än den semistatiskt linjära modellen, inom de studerade scenarierna. Denna inkomstökning skulle potentiellt kunna öka användningen av virtuella kraftverk på den svenska reservmarknaden vilket i sin tur skulle medföra högre stabilitet på elnätet. Genom att öka stabiliteten på elnätet kan således förnyelsebara energiresurser i sin tur lättare implementeras.

This report explores the impacts of variable renewable energy (VRE) on power trading in the European wholesale electricity market. The intricate operation of a typical power exchange in Europe is accompanied by an equally complex balancing system. The increasing amount of VRE in the power system, such as wind and solar power, has far-reaching impacts for power traders in both this electricity market and the corresponding balancing system. As a result, the electricity market is evolving in unprecedented ways and new participants are entering the playing field to capitalize on the changing dynamics caused by VRE generators. One novel participant, the virtual power plant (VPP), possesses an advantage over other market participants by aggregating VRE generators with controllable renewable energy generators, like biogas and hydro plants, into one entity. This allows the VPP to both gain access to live VRE production data that larger plants don’t have, which it then utilizes to remotely dispatch various subpools of assets, and to provide balancing services to the grid. Subsequently, VPPs are able to trade VRE and other renewable electricity superiorly on the same spot markets and balancing systems as large central power plants and industrial consumers. The report asserts that VPP traders can earn profits through means of innovative trading strategies that exploit predictable market impacts caused by VRE power through a robust understanding of the electricity market and their unique access to data. / Denna rapport undersöker effekterna av variabel förnybar energi (VRE) på krafthandeln på den europeiska elhandelsmarknaden för stora aktörer. Den komplicerade driften av ett typiskt kraftutbyte i Europa åtföljs av ett lika komplicerat balanseringssystem. Den ökande mängden VRE i kraftsystemet, såsom vind- och solkraft, har långtgående effekter för krafthandlare på både denna elmarknad och motsvarande balanseringssystem. Som ett resultat utvecklas elmarknaden på enastående sätt och nya deltagare kommer in på spelplanen för att dra nytta av den förändrade dynamiken som orsakas av VRE-generatorer. En ny spelare, det virtuella kraftverket (VPP), har en fördel jämfört med andra marknadsaktörer genom att samla VRE-generatorer med styrbara förnybara energiproducenter, som biogas och vattenkraftverk, till en enhet. Detta gör att VPP både kan få tillgång till live VRE-produktionsdata som större anläggningar inte har, som den sedan använder för att distribuera olika underpooler av tillgångar och för att tillhandahålla balanstjänster till nätet. Därefter kan VPP: er handla med VRE och annan förnybar el på ett överlägset sätt på samma spotmarknader och balanseringssystem som stora centrala kraftverk och industrikonsumenter. Rapporten visar att VPP-handlare kan göra vinster genom innovativa handelsstrategier som utnyttjar förutsägbara marknadseffekter orsakade av VRE-kraft genom en detaljerad förståelse för elmarknaden och unik tillgång till data för produktionen av förnybar energi / <p>QC 20201118</p>

The concept of positive energy districts (PED) encompasses a range of policies and strategies in response to climate protection targets in urban areas. Due to the limited potential of renewable energy in urban neighborhoods, broader definitions of PED are proposed that allow for energy exchange through the grid infrastructure. This study evaluates demand side management in combination with a virtual power plant (VPP) to assess the impact on the design of PED. In particular, the optimal customer behavior in response to flexible electricity tariffs is analyzed. A techno-economic energy system model is proposed for an urban area in Germany that optimizes the customer cost and the VPP’s margin. This includes electrical energy generation, storage, demand, and access to the short-term electricity market. Based on economic analysis, a dynamic market-based tariff allows the VPP to maximize profit margins. Consumers benefit when the local balances of renewable energy supply and demand are integrated into the dynamic tariff.

Esta dissertação apresenta uma contribuição aos estudos de planejamento do sistema elétrico do Estado de São Paulo, ressaltando os benefícios que se obteria, com uma maior integração das fontes renováveis à matriz elétrica desse estado (notadamente as fontes de energia solar fotovoltaica, eólica, aproveitamento dos resíduos sólidos urbano RSU e vinhaça), visando o aumento da segurança e independência energética, redução de perdas, e benefícios ambientais. Para tanto, apresenta-se o conceito das usinas virtuais, cujo propósito é obter um melhor e maior aproveitamento dos recursos energéticos normalmente dispersos espacialmente - incluindo nesse rol a microgeração distribuída, a autoprodução e cogeração, e mesmo as fontes não renováveis que se encontram perto dos centros de consumo - com o objetivo de coordenar o seu funcionamento conjunto para satisfazer os requisitos da demanda de energia, por meio do uso da Tecnologia da Informação e Telecomunicações ou das Redes Inteligentes (Smart Grid), e, além disso, configurando a usina virtual de maneira que ela atue , no que diz respeito ao sistema interconectado de energia elétrica, rede de transmissão ou distribuição, como se fosse uma planta de geração de grande porte. Apresenta-se uma análise e projeções da operação e do suprimento do subsistema Sudeste/Centro Oeste (SE/CO), com foco especial no Sistema Elétrico do Estado de São Paulo, com suas interações com o SIN. / This Thesis presents contributions for the planning of the electrical system of São Paulo State Brazil, emphasizing benefits obtained with a better integration of renewables (mainly solar photovoltaics, wind energy, from municipal solid waste and sugarcane vinasse) aiming energy security and independence, loss reduction and environmental benefits. For this, the concept of VPP Virtual Power Plant is introduced, in which a better and broader use of energetic resources, geographically dispersed, including distributed microgeneration, autoproduction, cogeneration, and even nonrenewable sources, is facilitated. Those disperse energy resources, in general located near the consumer, are grouped and jointly managed, in order of to satisfy the demand requirements, using Smart Grid and Information and Telecommunication Technologies, and making the VPP to act, for the transmission or distribution system point of view, as a conventional large electrical power plant. An analysis and forecasts of the operation of the Brazilian Southeast/Center West (SE/CO) subsystem, with special focus on São Paulo State electrical system, and its interactions with the Brazilian Interconnected Electrical System (SIN), is presented.

Esta dissertação apresenta uma contribuição aos estudos de planejamento do sistema elétrico do Estado de São Paulo, ressaltando os benefícios que se obteria, com uma maior integração das fontes renováveis à matriz elétrica desse estado (notadamente as fontes de energia solar fotovoltaica, eólica, aproveitamento dos resíduos sólidos urbano RSU e vinhaça), visando o aumento da segurança e independência energética, redução de perdas, e benefícios ambientais. Para tanto, apresenta-se o conceito das usinas virtuais, cujo propósito é obter um melhor e maior aproveitamento dos recursos energéticos normalmente dispersos espacialmente - incluindo nesse rol a microgeração distribuída, a autoprodução e cogeração, e mesmo as fontes não renováveis que se encontram perto dos centros de consumo - com o objetivo de coordenar o seu funcionamento conjunto para satisfazer os requisitos da demanda de energia, por meio do uso da Tecnologia da Informação e Telecomunicações ou das Redes Inteligentes (Smart Grid), e, além disso, configurando a usina virtual de maneira que ela atue , no que diz respeito ao sistema interconectado de energia elétrica, rede de transmissão ou distribuição, como se fosse uma planta de geração de grande porte. Apresenta-se uma análise e projeções da operação e do suprimento do subsistema Sudeste/Centro Oeste (SE/CO), com foco especial no Sistema Elétrico do Estado de São Paulo, com suas interações com o SIN. / This Thesis presents contributions for the planning of the electrical system of São Paulo State Brazil, emphasizing benefits obtained with a better integration of renewables (mainly solar photovoltaics, wind energy, from municipal solid waste and sugarcane vinasse) aiming energy security and independence, loss reduction and environmental benefits. For this, the concept of VPP Virtual Power Plant is introduced, in which a better and broader use of energetic resources, geographically dispersed, including distributed microgeneration, autoproduction, cogeneration, and even nonrenewable sources, is facilitated. Those disperse energy resources, in general located near the consumer, are grouped and jointly managed, in order of to satisfy the demand requirements, using Smart Grid and Information and Telecommunication Technologies, and making the VPP to act, for the transmission or distribution system point of view, as a conventional large electrical power plant. An analysis and forecasts of the operation of the Brazilian Southeast/Center West (SE/CO) subsystem, with special focus on São Paulo State electrical system, and its interactions with the Brazilian Interconnected Electrical System (SIN), is presented.