O presente trabalho consistiu na caracterização hidrológica de duas microbacias visando identificar critérios e indicadores hidrológicos que possam contribuir para a implementação de melhores práticas de manejo nas plantações de eucalipto e para o esclarecimento de possíveis impactos dessa atividade sobre a produção de água em quantidade e qualidade, na escala da microbacia hidrográfica. As microbacias experimentais monitoradas localizam-se na Fazenda Santa Terezinha, município de Bofete (SP). A microbacia E possui Eucalyptus grandis, usado para fins de serraria pela Eucatex S.A. Situada na mesma vertente da Bacia do Rio do Peixe, a microbacia P é destinada à pecuária extensiva, uso tradicional da terra na região. A caracterização hidrológica quantitativa baseou-se na análise dos dados pluviométricos e fluviométricos obtidos no decorrer de 2 anos de monitoramento contínuo (novembro de 2000 a outubro de 2002). A precipitação média anual registrada no ano hídrico de nov/00 a out/01 foi de 1.893,80 mm e 1.407,90 para nov/01 a out/02. O deflúvio anual para a microbacia E no primeiro ano hídrico foi de 148,76 mm e de 125,62 mm, para o segundo. As perdas médias ocasionadas por evapotranspiração no período monitorado somaram 1.513,66 mm. Para a microbacia P, o deflúvio observado para o ano hídrico de nov/00 a out/01 correspondeu a 383,35 mm e para nov/01 a out/02, 365,67 mm. As perdas médias por evapotranspiração nessa microbacia corresponderam a 1276,34 mm. A temperatura média observa entre set/01 a ago/02 foi de 21,38 ºC e a umidade relativa média, de 69,67 %. A microbacia P apresentou uma maior variação para todos os parâmetros físico-químicos usados para avaliar a qualidade da água do deflúvio e uma resiliência menor. As reduzidas concentrações de nutrientes no deflúvio da microbacia E e seu padrão estável de comportamento indicam melhor estabilidade hidrológica equilíbrio da floresta. Na microbacia E verificou-se que a resistência do solo à penetração para a linha de plantio, entre árvores foi inferior àquela observada fora da linha de plantio. Para a microbacia P, a avaliação foi feita na trilha de pisoteio do gado e fora da trilha, sendo que na trilha os valores de densidade do solo e índice de compactação foram mais expressivos. Os indicadores visuais sugeridos mostraram correspondência com os demais resultados observados. As microbacias hidrográficas monitoradas fazem parte do programa mais abrangente de Monitoramento e Modelagem de Bacias Hidrográficas desenvolvido pelo Instituto de Pesquisa e Estudos Florestais, através do Laboratório de Hidrologia Florestal do Departamento de Ciências Florestais da Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz", Universidade de São Paulo (ESALQ/USP). / The present work consisted of the hydrological characterization of two catchments aiming to identify hydrologic criteria and indicators that can contribute for the implementation of better management practices of Eucalyptus plantations, as well as the evaluation of possible impacts of these activities on catchment yield and quality. The experimental catchments are located at Fazenda Santa Terezinha, Bofete (SP). The catchment E is covered with Eucalyptus grandis, management for sawmill situated at Eucatex S.A. Catchment P is covered with pasture, traditional land use in the region. The quantitative hydrological characterization was based on the analysis of rainfall and streamflow data during two consecutive years (November of 2000 the October of 2002). The average annual precipitation for the water year of nov/00 out/01 was 1.893,80 mm and 1,407.90 mm for nov/01 out/02. The annual streamflow for the same water years were 148,76 mm and 125,62 mm, respectively. The average losses caused by evapotranspiration in the monitored period amounted to 1,513.66 mm. For catchment P, the streamflow observed for the water year of nov/00 out/01 corresponded to 383,35 mm and for nov/01 out/02, to 365,67 mm. The average losses for evapotranspiration in this catchment corresponded to 1276,34 mm. The average temperature observed between set/01 ago/02 was 21,38 ºC and the average relative humidity, 69,67 %. Catchment P presented a higher variation for all the studied parameters used physicist-chemistries to evaluate the quality of the water of the emanation and a lesser resilience. The reduced concentrations of nutrients losses in streamflow of catchment E, coupled with a more stable hydrological responses, reflect better protection from Eucalyptus forest. In the catchment, it was verified that the soil resistance to penetration in the plantation line, between trees, was lower than that observed outside of the plantation line. For catchment P, the evaluation it was made in the cattle track, where the values of soil bulk density and resistance to penetration were higher than those observed outside the cattle track. The suggest visual indicators of catchment health shown correspondence with the observed results. The monitored catchments are part of a broader of catchment environmental and monitoring developed by the Institute of Forest Research and Studies, through the Laboratory of Forest Hydrology of the Department of Forest Sciences of the Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz", University of São Paulo (ESALQ/USP).

A compreensão da circulação da água em aquíferos requer o levantamento de suas características intrínsecas relacionados à hidrogeologia e às variáveis do ciclo hidrológico. Embora a interface entre as formações geológicas do Sistema Aquífero Guarani (SAG) venha sendo mapeada para verificar a susceptibilidade à explotação e contaminação, faz-se necessário conhecer a heterogeneidade estratigráfica em suas áreas de afloramento. Este estudo visa investigar as propriedades hidrogeológicas usando técnicas geofísicas e modelar numericamente o escoamento subterrâneo em área de afloramento do SAG. Foram utilizados o Ground Penetratring Radar com antena de 200MHz, a sondagem elétrica vertical com arranjo Schlumberger e o imageamento elétrico com arranjo dipolo-dipolo. A interface usada para a modelagem numérica por elementos finitos foi o Simulador de Processos em Aquíferos (SPA). As técnicas geofísicas contribuíram para o modelo numérico com a definição de duas regiões com diferentes condutividades hidráulicas, sendo a maior condutividade próxima à área de descarga. Também foi possível definir uma condição de contorno de fluxo não-nulo pela interpretação dos imageamentos elétricos. Um longo período de 14 anos hidrológicos para uma área com intensa mudança de uso do solo e registro de crise hídrica foi bem simulado pelo modelo numérico apresentando coeficientes de Kling-Gupta não paramétrico (KGENP) para os poços entre 0,52 (P8) e 0,89 (P16) e para vazão de base entre 0,66 (EF-SMF) e 0,93 (CP2). A análise das incertezas e heterogeneidade espaçotemporal da recarga podem contribuir para este trabalho e melhorar o balanço hídrico da área de afloramento do SAG. / Groundwater flux comprehension depends on knowledge of hydrogeological parameters and the water cycle, specially the recharge process. Although geological interfaces of the Guarani Aquifer System have been mapping to verify exploitation and contamination susceptibility, stratigraphy heterogeneity of the outcrop areas are not thoroughly known. The aims of this study are hydrogeological characterization from geophysical techniques and groundwater flux numerical modelling. Ground Penetrating Radar with a 200 MHz antenna, vertical electrical sounding with Schlumberger array and electrical resistivity tomography with dipole-dipole array were used. Also, a finite element model was applied to groundwater flux analysis. Geophysical techniques helped to define two hydraulic conductivity regions and a specified flux boundary condition. A 14-year-long groundwater flux model for an area under intense land use changes and water shortage scenario was well simulated. The non-parametric Kling-Gupta (KGENP) coefficient for the groundwater level varied between 0.52 (P8) and 0.89 (P16); and the KGENP calculated with the baseflow values ranged between 0.66 (EF-SMF) and 0.93 (CP2). More studies are suggested to scientific improvement related to the uncertainty and spatiotemporal heterogeneity recharge of outcrop zones of the Guarani Aquifer System to a better water balance understanding.

<p>Högbytorp is Ragn-Sells’ largest waste facility and it is located north of Stockholm. There is an old landfill still in use, but at the end of this year it will be closed. The waste deposited on the landfill can, through decomposition, give rise to a large amount of methane gas, which is an energy rich gas that can be used for heat and electricity production. To receive a relatively large amount of gas, the decomposition requires a high moisture content in the waste. Therefore the landfill is dependent on precipitation input, although when the landfill is covered, rainfall can no longer infiltrate the landfill and hence irrigation might be necessary to sustain gas production. To know where to irrigate, knowledge about the material content in the landfill is necessary. Thus the purpose of this report is to identify and describe what kind and amount of waste that has been deposited on the landfill and also where the waste has been placed. The purpose is also to investigate the availability of methods and that are used in Sweden for establishing a water balance for a landfill. The identification work showed that the landfill consists mainly of household-, construction- and industrial waste, retted sludge from sewage treatment plants and soil, which all can produce large quantities of methane gas. The investigation about the different methods for conducting a water balance resulted in the presentation of two methods. One of the methods is called Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) and is a computer simulation. The other method is an equation established by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (Naturvårdsverket). Both of the methods works well for obtaining a water balance, however modification is needed for each of them in order to be well suited for the studied landfill, so that realistic and site specific results can be obtained.</p>

Im Landschaftszustand und in der Landschaftsentwicklung kommen funktionale Beziehungen zwischen dem naturbedingten Energie-, Wasser- und Stoffhaushalt einerseits und den Auswirkungen der Landnutzung andererseits zum Ausdruck. Gegenwärtig verändert der globale Anstieg der bodennahen Temperaturen vielerorts den landschaftlichen Energie-, Wasser- und Stoffhaushalt, wobei besonders in Trockengebieten zu erwarten ist, dass dieser Trend in Verbindung mit einer unangepassten Landnutzung das Regenerationsvermögen der Vegetation einschränkt und zur Zerstörung der Bodendecke führt.<br /> <br /> Für die Mongolei und für benachbarte Gebiete Asiens sind in Szenarien zur globalen Erwärmung hohe Werte des Temperaturanstiegs prognostiziert worden. Eine globale Einschätzung der anthropogen induzierten Bodendegradation hat diese Region als stark oder extrem stark betroffen eingestuft. Vor diesem Hintergrund wurde im Uvs-Nuur-Becken, das im Nordwesten der Mongolei und damit in einer der trockensten Regionen des Landes gelegen ist, untersucht, wie sich der globale Temperaturanstieg auf der lokalen und regionalen Ebene widerspiegelt und wie der Landschaftshaushalt dabei verändert wird.<br /> <br /> Die Auswirkungen des sommerlichen Witterungsverlaufes auf den Landschaftszustand sind 1997 bis 1999 an einem Transsekt erfasst worden, das sich zwischen dem Kharkhiraa-Gebirge am Westrand des Beckens und dem See Uvs Nuur im Beckeninneren von den Polsterfluren und Matten der alpinen Stufe über die Gebirgswaldsteppe, die Trockensteppe bis zur Halbwüste erstreckt. An neun Messpunkten wurden witterungsklimatische Daten in Verbindung mit Merkmalen der Vegetation, des Bodens und der Bodenfeuchte aufgenommen. Die im Sommer 1998 gewonnenen Messwerte wurden mit Hilfe einer Clusteranalyse gebündelt und verdichtet. Auf dieser Grundlage konnten landschaftliche Zustandsformen inhaltlich gekennzeichnet, zeitlich eingeordnet und durch Zeit-Verhaltens-Modelle (Stacks) abgebildet werden. Aus den Zeit-Verhaltens-Modellen wird ersichtlich, dass man Zustandsformen, in denen die Hitze und die Trockenheit des Sommers 1998 besonders stark zum Ausdruck kommen, an allen Messpunkten beobachten kann, nimmt man die Station auf dem fast 3.000 m hohen Gipfel des Khukh Uul sowie die grundwasserbeeinflusste Station in unmittelbarer Seenähe aus. In ihrer extremen Form sind Trockenperioden jedoch nur im Beckeninneren und am Fuß der Randgebirge, also in der Halbwüste, in der Trockensteppe und in der Wiesensteppe aufgetreten. Im Bergwald sowie im Bereich der alpinen Matten und Polsterfluren fehlen sie.<br /> <br /> Am stärksten sind die grundwasserfreien Bereiche der Halbwüste von der Hitze und Niederschlagsarmut des Sommers 1998 betroffen. An vier Fünfteln der Tage des Beobachtungszeitraumes herrscht an diesem Messpunkt extreme Trockenheit. Es fällt entweder gar kein Niederschlag oder nur so wenig, dass der seit dem Frühjahr erschöpfte Bodenwasservorrat nicht aufgefüllt wird. Das Verhältnis zwischen Niederschlag und potenzieller Verdunstung liegt hier bei 1:12.<br /> <br /> In der Halbwüste zeichnet sich eine fortschreitende Desertifikation ab, zumal hier eine nichtangepasste Weidenutzung dominiert, in der Ziegen eine immer größere Rolle spielen. Dies gilt insbesondere für Bereiche in Siedlungsnähe. Örtlich ist auch der Bestand der Trockensteppe gefährdet, die sich an die Halbwüste zum Beckenrand hin anschließt. Hier ist nicht nur die Viehdichte am höchsten, sondern hier werden auch die meisten unbefestigten Fahrwege wild angelegt und die Bodendecke damit zerstört. Dies kann im Endeffekt zu einem Übergreifen von Prozessen der Desertifikation führen.<br /> <br /> Aus methodischer Sicht zeigt sich, dass die Kennzeichnung landschaftlicher Zustandsformen durch Zeit-Verhaltens-Modelle die Ermittlung der Auswirkungen von Witterung und Klima auf den Landschaftszustand erleichtert, da sie deren Aussage konzentriert. Zur Interpretation der Ergebnisse ist jedoch ein Rückgriff auf die beschreibende Darstellung der Messwerte notwendig. Die im westlichen Uvs-Nuur-Becken und seinen Randgebirgen angewandte Verfahrensweise ermöglicht es, globale Aussagen zur globalen Erwärmung der Kontinente regional oder lokal zu überprüfen und zu untersetzen." / Landscape condition and landscape development express the functional relations between energy balance, water balance and material balance on the one hand and on the other hand they reflect the effects of land use. At present the global increase of near-surface air temperature changes the energy balance, water balance and material balance in many places. Especially in arid regions this trend and an inappropriate land use restrict the regeneration ability of vegetation and lead to the degradation of soil cover.<br /> <br /> Different scenarios for global warming prognosticate high values of increasing air temperature in Mongolia and its adjacent regions in Asia. A global estimation of anthropogenicly induced soil degradation classifies this region as strongly or extremely strong affected. Against this background a research was carried out in the Uvs Nuur Basin, placed in the northwest of Mongolia and therefore in one of the most arid regions of this country. The object of investigation was the reflection of the global increase of air temperature on a local and regional level and the resulting changes of landscape balance.<br /> <br /> From 1997 to 1999 the effects of changes in summer weather on the landscape condition were measured on a transect from the Kharkhiraa mountains at the western margin of the basin up to the lake Uvs at the centre of the basin. The transect included alpine mat, mountain steppe, dry steppe and semi desert. Climatic data was collected at 9 transect stations, in addition with characteristics of vegetation, soil and soil moisture. The data of summer 1998 was bundled and consolidated with a cluster analysis. On this basis forms of landscape condition could be evaluated in content, arranged chronologically and characterised by time performance models (stacks).<br /> <br /> The time performance models prove that forms of landscape condition marking the heat and the drought of summer 1998 can be found at every station of the transect except of the one on the summit of Khukh Uul at almost 3.000 m above sea level and another groundwater-influenced station at the bank of lake Uvs. However, extremely dry periods occur only from the centre of the basin up to the foothills, thus in the semi desert, the dry steppe and the short grass steppe. They do not occur in the mountain forest and in the alpine mat.<br /> <br /> Areas in the semi desert are most affected by drought and lack of precipitation during the summer 1998. Four fifths of the days in the measurement period are extremely droughty days. Either there is no precipitation at all or it is insufficient to fill up the soil water storage exhausted since spring-time. The relation of precipitation and potential evaporation averages out here at 1:12.<br /> <br /> A progressive desertification becomes apparent in the semi desert, particularly determined by an inappropriate land use in conjunction with an increasing goat-rearing in the area around the settlements. Partially this trend even affects the dry steppe in adjacency to the semi desert toward the margin of the basin. These areas are characterised not only by the highest stocking rate but also by the largest number of unofficial dirt roads thus leading to the denudation of the soil cover and finally to the spreading of desertification processes.<br /> <br /> From the methodical point of view it is obvious that the characterisation by time performance models facilitates the determination of weather and climate influence on landscape condition by summarising their information. However, the interpretation of the results has to be accomplished by a describing analysis of the measured data. The procedure applied in the western Uvs Nuur Basin and its adjacent mountains provides the opportunity to examine and substantiate the reports on global warming at regional or local level.

Högbytorp is Ragn-Sells’ largest waste facility and it is located north of Stockholm. There is an old landfill still in use, but at the end of this year it will be closed. The waste deposited on the landfill can, through decomposition, give rise to a large amount of methane gas, which is an energy rich gas that can be used for heat and electricity production. To receive a relatively large amount of gas, the decomposition requires a high moisture content in the waste. Therefore the landfill is dependent on precipitation input, although when the landfill is covered, rainfall can no longer infiltrate the landfill and hence irrigation might be necessary to sustain gas production. To know where to irrigate, knowledge about the material content in the landfill is necessary. Thus the purpose of this report is to identify and describe what kind and amount of waste that has been deposited on the landfill and also where the waste has been placed. The purpose is also to investigate the availability of methods and that are used in Sweden for establishing a water balance for a landfill. The identification work showed that the landfill consists mainly of household-, construction- and industrial waste, retted sludge from sewage treatment plants and soil, which all can produce large quantities of methane gas. The investigation about the different methods for conducting a water balance resulted in the presentation of two methods. One of the methods is called Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) and is a computer simulation. The other method is an equation established by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (Naturvårdsverket). Both of the methods works well for obtaining a water balance, however modification is needed for each of them in order to be well suited for the studied landfill, so that realistic and site specific results can be obtained.

Η περιοχή μελέτης εκτείνεται στο βόρειο και παραλιακό τμήμα του νομού Κορινθίας μεταξύ των πόλεων Κιάτου και Κορίνθου και καταλαμβάνει έκταση 65km2. Η νέα εθνική οδός Κορίνθου – Πατρών αποτελεί το νότιο όριο της περιοχής ενώ προς βορρά περιορίζεται από τον Κορινθιακό κόλπο. Το τοπογραφικό ανάγλυφο είναι ήπιο με το υψόμετρο να κυμαίνεται από 0 – 50 μέτρα. Ο ποταμός Ασσωπός και οι χείμαρροι Ραχιάνης και Ζαπάντης δομούν το υδρογραφικό δίκτυο της περιοχής. Το γεωλογικό υπόβαθρο της περιοχής αποτελείται από ανθρακικά ιζήματα των ζωνών Τρίπολης και Πίνδου, των οποίων υπέρκεινται μετα-ορογεντικά ιζήματα Πλειο-πλειστοκαινικής ηλικίας. Ο υδροφόρος ορίζοντας που μελετήθηκε αναπτύσσεται σε αλλουβιακά ιζήματα, κυρίως άμμους, κροκάλες, λατύπες, και λεπτομερή αργιλοαμμώδη και πηλοαμμώδη ιζήματα που εμφανίζουν υψηλό βαθμό ετερογένειας. Το πάχος του υδροφόρου κυμαίνεται από λίγα μέτρα έως 60 m και χαρακτηρίζεται ως ελεύθερος. Η ρηξιγενής ζώνη που εμφανίζεται κατά μήκος της Ν.Ε.Ο. Κορίνθου – Πατρών αποτελεί υδρογεωλογικό όριο προς νότο για τον υπό μελέτη υδροφόρο. Η εμφάνιση μαργών στην περιοχή του Κιάτου είναι το δυτικό υδρογεωλογικό όριο, ενώ ανατολικά περιορίζεται από την επέκταση των Τυρρήνιων αναβαθμίδων στη θάλασσα. Η κύρια τροφοδοσία του υδροφόρου προέρχεται από τη διήθηση των επιφανειακών υδάτων του ποταμού Ασωπού και των παρακείμενων χειμάρρων, ενώ κατά δεύτερο λόγω από την απευθείας κατείσδυση των ατμοσφαιρικών κατακρημνισμάτων. Για την προσομοίωση της υπόγειας ροής του αλλουβιακού υδροφόρου έγινε χρήση του κώδικα MODFLOW της USGS. Από την εφαρμογή του μοντέλου εξήχθησαν ικανοποιητικά αποτελέσματα που έδωσαν τη δυνατότητα υπολογισμού ενός αξιόπιστου ισοζυγίου, το οποίο μπορεί να αποτελέσει ένα εργαλείο στην εφαρμογή ενός σχεδίου ορθολογικής διαχείρισης των υδατικών πόρων της Κορινθίας. Για την υδροχημική έρευνα χρησιμοποιήθηκε πυκνό δίκτυο δειγματοληψίας νερού σε 35 υδροσημεία της περιοχής μελέτης. Ο υδροφόρος έχει επηρεαστεί από φαινόμενα υφαλμύρινσης και ανταλλαγής ιόντων κυρίως στις βόρειες παράκτιες ζώνες. Οι συγκεντρώσεις των NO3-, NH4+ και των SO4-2 ιόντων παρουσιάζονται υψηλότερες από τα ανώτατα επιτρεπόμενα όρια ποσιμότητας. Η εφαρμογή της παραγοντικής ανάλυσης ανέδειξε τις παραπάνω υδροχημικές διεργασίες. / The study area forms the northern coastal part of Corinth’s prefecture, between the towns of Kiato and Corinth and has an area extend of 65 km2. To the south it is bounded by Athens - Patras National road, whilst to the north it is bounded by Corinthian Gulf. The topographic relief is quite gentle and varies from 0 to 50 m. A considerable hydrographic network develops across the studied region and is represented mainly by the river Asopos and the less important torrents Rachianis and Zapantis. The region can be characterized as an agro tourism center. The land is used mainly for the cultivation and of citrus fruits, olives, apricots and vineyards. Regional environment is subject to numerous pressures most important of which are intensified uses of land and water resources. Water demands have considerably increased over the last 15 years and mainly are covered by groundwater abstract from the alluvial aquifer system. The geological bedrock of the study area consists of the carbonate sediments of Tripolis and Pindos isopics zones and a transitional zone between Pindos and Pelagonial Zone. The plain north of the national zone is covered by post orogenetic sediments of Pliocene to Holocene age which unconformably overlay the bedrock formations. The studied aquifer is formed of recent unconsolidated material consisting of sands, pebbles, breccias and fine clay to silty sand deposits, characterized by high degree of heterogeneity and anisotropy. The thickness of the aquifer varies from a few meters to 40 m. From a hydrogeological point of view the system consists of an unconfined phreatic aquifer. A fault zone along the national highway delineates the southern edge of aquifer system, which is bounded by the Gulf of Corinth to the north. To the east, the system is bounded by the Tyrrhenian deposits extended to the sea. The marl series which, as an entity, is considered an aquitard, slopes to the north and forms the bedrock of the studied coastal alluvial aquifer system. The basic recharge of the phreatic aquifer is from the fluviotorrential deposits, especially those of the Asopos River and also from the Tyrrhenian deposits across the southern edge of the basin. In addition to that the aquifer recharged from direct infiltration of precipitation and river bed indirect infiltration. The simulation of ground water flow of the alluvial aquifer is based on the MODFLOW model of the USGS. The application of the mathematical model had very satisfactory results which is a reliable hydrogeological balance. Estimation of hydraulic conductivity distribution was optimized by using trial and error inverse method. The ground water hydrochemical study was carried out, by an extensive network of 35 samples. The use of inorganic fertilizers in cultivations has a great pollution effect in ground water. The coastal aquifer has been affected, by sea water intrusion and as a result catio-exchange phenomena took plase along the coastline mainly at Lechaio area. The concentration of NO3- , NH4+, and SO4- ions are higher than the maximum allowed drinking limits. The application of R-mode factor analysis helped to delineate the major hydrochemical process of the area.

No description available.

Evapotranspiration ET is a dominant Earth System process that couples the water and energy cycles at the earth surface. The pressure of global environmental changes foster the broad scientific aim to understand impacts of climate and land-use on evapotranspiration under transient conditions. In this work, the spatial scale of river catchments is addressed through data analysis of hydrological and meteorological archives with ET classically derived through water balance closure. Through a synthesis of various catchments with different climatic forcings and hydrological conditions, the core objectives of this thesis are: - Did environmental changes in the past, such as climatic- or land-use and land cover (LULC) changes, result in detectable non-stationary changes in the hydro-climate time series? - How can the impacts of climatic- from LULC changes on the hydroclimatology of catchments be separated? - What are the factors that control the sensitivity of ET and streamflow to external changes? These research questions are addressed for the climatic scales of long-term annual averages and seasonal conditions which characterise the hydroclimatology of river catchments. Illustrated by a rich hydro-climatic archive condensed for 27 small to medium sized river catchments in Saxony, a method is proposed to analyse the seasonal features of river flow allowing to detect shifting seasons in snow affected river basins in the last 90 years. Observations of snow depth at these same times lead to the conclusion, that changes in the annual cycle of air temperature have a large influence on the timing of the freeze-thaw in late winter and early spring. This causes large changes in storage of water in the snow pack, which leads to profound changes of the river regime, particularly affecting the river flow in the following months. A model-based data analysis, based on the fundamental principles of water and energy conservation for long-term average conditions, is proposed for the prediction of ET and streamflow, as well as the separation of climate related impacts from impacts resulting from changes in basin conditions. The framework was tested on a large data set of river catchments in the continental US and is shown to be consistent with other methods proposed in the literature. The observed past changes highlight that (i) changes in climate, such as precipitation or evaporative demand, result in changes of the partitioning within the water and energy balance, (ii) the aridity of the climate and to a lesser degree basin conditions determine the sensitivity to external changes, (iii) these controlling factors influence the direction of LULC change impacts, which in some cases can be larger than climate impacts. This work provides evidence, that changes in climatic and land cover conditions can lead to transient hydrological behaviours and make stationary assumptions invalid. Hence, past changes present the opportunity for model testing and thereby deriving fundamental laws and concepts at the scale of interest, which are not affected by changes in the boundary conditions. / Die Verdunstung ist ein maßgeblicher Prozess innerhalb des Klimasystems der Erde, welche den Wasserkreislauf mit dem Energiehaushalt der Erde verbindet. Eine zentrale wissenschaftliche Herausforderung ist, zu verstehen, wie die regionale Wasserverfügbarkeit durch Änderungen des Klimas oder der physiographischen Eigenschaften der Landoberfläche beeinflusst wird. Mittels einer integrierten Datenanalyse von vorhandenen langjährigen Archiven hydroklimatischer Zeitreihen werden die folgenden wissenschaftlichen Fragestellungen dieser Dissertation diskutiert: - Haben beobachtete Änderungen der Landoberfläche und des Klimas zu nachweisbaren, instationären hydroklimatischen Änderungen geführt? - Lassen sich die hydroklimatischen Auswirkungen von Klimaänderungen und Änderungen der Landoberfläche voneinander unterscheiden? - Welche Faktoren beeinflussen die Sensitivität von Abfluss und Verdunstung auf Veränderungen der klimatischen und physiographischen Randbedingungen? Hierbei fokussiert sich die Arbeit auf Änderungen im langjährige Mittel und im Jahresgang von hydroklimatischen Variablen auf der räumlichen Skala von Flusseinzugsgebieten. Zur Untersuchung des hydrologischen Regimes wurde ein harmonischer Filter angewandt, der es erlaubt, die Eintrittszeit des Jahresgangs (Phase) zu quantifizieren. Diese klimatologische Kenngröße wurde für eine Vielzahl von Einzugsgebieten in Sachsen untersucht, wobei sich vor allem für die Gebiete in den Kammlagen des Erzgebirges signifikante Veränderungen ergaben. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die signifikante Phasenverschiebung der Temperatur seit Ende der 1980er Jahre zu einer verfrühten Schneeschmelze und dadurch zu einem Rückgang des Abflusses bis in die Sommermonate hinein geführt hat. Desweiteren wurde eine modellbasierte Datenanalyse entwickelt, welche auf Massen- und Energieerhalt von Einzugsgebieten im langjährigen Mittel beruht. Das entwickelte Konzept erlaubt es, Auswirkungen von Klimaänderungen von anderen Effekten, welche z.B. durch Landnutzungsänderungen bedingt sind, abzugrenzen und zu quantifizieren. Die Ergebnisse einer Sensitivitätsanalyse dieses Konzeptes sowie die Anwendung auf einen umfangreichen hydroklimatischen Datensatz der USA zeigen: (i) Veränderungen im Wasser- oder Energiedargebot beeinflussen auch die Aufteilung der Wasser- und Energieflüsse. (ii) Die Aridität des Klimas und nachgeordnet die physiographischen Faktoren bestimmen die Sensitivität von Verdunstung und Abfluss. (iii) Beide Faktoren beeinflussen die Stärke und Richtung der Auswirkungen von physiographischen Änderungen. (iv) Anthropogene Veränderungen der Landoberfläche führten zum Teil zu stärkeren Auswirkungen als klimatisch bedingte Änderungen. Zusammenfassend zeigt sich, dass Änderungen von Landnutzung und Klima zu Verschiebungen im Wasserhaushalt führen können und damit auch die Annahme von Stationarität verletzen. Hydroklimatische Veränderungen bieten aber auch eine Gelegenheit zum Testen von Theorien und Modellen, um somit die grundlegenden Zusammenhänge zu erkennen, welche nicht durch Änderungen der Randbedingungen hinfällig werden.

Climate change and population growth is putting increased pressure on water supply. However, detailed water-balance information, which would assist with management is lacking for major reservoirs around the world. This information is particularly critical in mid-latitude northern Mediterranean climates where evaporation is a potentially important water-balance component. This study examines the seasonality of the water balance for the Sooke Reservoir in western Canada, a major water supply for the City of Victoria, British Columbia. Evaporation is estimated with three evaporation models, Penman, Priestley-Taylor, and Hamon and the results are compared. Inflows are estimated with the contributing-area approach and the HBV-EC, hydrologic model. Finally, a worst-case drought scenario is created. If conditions of low precipitation and high evaporation like those found in the study period were to persist, water levels would become critically low during the third dry season and by the fifth season if water restrictions were put in place.

This thesis investigates the abiotic control of carbon (C) and water vapour fluxes (FCO₂ and E, respectively) in a New Zealand Pinus radiata D. Don plantation and a nearby clearcut. It concentrates on the limitation of these fluxes imposed by growing season soil water deficit. This results from low precipitation (658 mm a⁻¹) in combination with a limited root zone water storage capacity of the very stony soil (> 30% by volume). The thesis analyses results from seven eddy covariance flux measurement campaigns between November 1994 and March 1996. The study site was located in Balmoral Forest, 100 km north-west of Christchurch (42° 52' S, 172° 45' E), in a (in November 1994) 8-year-old stand. One set of measurements was conducted in an adjacent clearcut. Ecosystem flux measurements were accompanied by separate measurements of ground fluxes and of the associated environmental variables. Flux analysis focussed on the underlying processes of assimilation (Ac), canopy stomatal conductance (Gc) and respiration (Reco), using biophysical models coupled to soil water balance and temperature subroutines. Aiming to link time inegrated net ecosystem C (NEP) to tree growth, sequestration in tree biomass (NPP) was quantified by regular measurements of stem diameter using allometric relationships. Average rates of FCO₂ and E were highest in spring (324 mmol m⁻² d⁻¹ and 207 mol m⁻² d⁻¹, respectively) when the abiotic environment was most favourable for Gc and Ac. During summer, fluxes were impeded by the depletion of available soil water (θ) and the co-occurrence of high air saturation deficit (D) and temperature (T) and were equal or smaller than during winter (FCO₂ = 46 mmol m⁻² d⁻¹ in summer and 115 mmol m⁻² d⁻¹ in winter; E = 57 and 47 mol m⁻² d⁻¹, respectively). With increasingly dry soil, fluxes and their associated ratios became predominantly regulated by D rather than quantum irradiance, and on particularly hot days the ecosystem was a net C source. Interannually, forest C and water fluxes increased strongly with rainfall, and the simultaneously reduced D and T. For two succeeding years, the second having 3 % more rain, modelled NEP was 515 and 716 g C m⁻² a⁻¹, Ac 1690 and 1841 g C m⁻² a⁻¹ and Reco 1175 and 1125 g C m⁻² a⁻¹. NEP / E increased in wetter (and cooler) years (1.3 and 1.5 g kg⁻¹), reflecting a relatively larger gain in NEP. Responding mainly to increased rainfall during commonly dry parts of the year (ie summer), and reflecting the otherwise benign maritime climate of New Zealand, NEP during the winter months could exceed NEP during the middle of the notional tree growing season. Annual Ac, NEP, and NPP were strongly linearly related. This relation did not hold during bi-weekly periods when the processes of intermediate C storage were influential. Separate knowledge of tree growth and C fluxes allowed quantification of autotrophic, and heterotrophic respiration (Rhet≈ 0.4 NEP), as well as fine-root turnover (≈0.2 NEP). The ratio of NEP and stem volume growth was conservative (0.24 t C m⁻³) and allows a direct connection to be made between ecosystem carbon fluxes and forest yield tables. In the absence of living roots, the clearcut flux measurements demonstrated the expected limitation of Rhet by soil temperature (Ts) and θ. However, an additional 'pumping effect' was discovered at the open site whereby turbulence increased CO₂ efflux considerably when the soil surface was wet. Accounting for the combined effects of Ts, θ and turbulence, annual Rhet at the clear-cut site (loss to the atmosphere) was »50 % of NEP (C sequestered from the atmosphere) in the nearby forest. Clearly, there is an important contribution of C fluxes during early stages of ecosystem development to the total C sequestered over the lifetime of a plantation.