Techn. University, Diss., 2005--München. / Enth. 3 Sonderabdr. aus verschiedenen Zeitschr.

Burn severity was measured within the Mediterranean sclerophyll forests of south-west Western Australia (WA) using remote sensing data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). The region of south-west WA is considered as a high fire prone landscape and is managed by the state government’s Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM). Prescribed fuel reduction burning is used as a management tool in this region. The measurement of burn severity with remote sensing data focused on monitoring the success and impact of prescribed burning and wildfire in this environment. The high temporal resolution of MODIS with twice daily overpasses in this area was considered highly favourable, as opportunities for prescribed burning are temporally limited by climatic conditions. The Normalised Burn Ratio (NBR) was investigated to measure burn severity in the forested area of south-west WA. This index has its heritage based on data from the Landsat TM/ETM+ sensors (Key and Benson, 1999 [1],[2]) and was transferred from Landsat to MODIS data. The measurement principally addresses the biomass consumption due to fire, whereas the change detected between the pre-fire image and the post-fire image is quantified by the ÄNBR. The NBR and the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) have been applied to MODIS and Landsat TM/ETM+ data. The spectral properties and the index values of the remote sensing data have been analysed within different burnt areas. The influence of atmospheric and BRDF effects on MODIS data has been investigated by comparing uncorrected top of atmosphere reflectance and atmospheric and BRDF corrected reflectance. The definition of burn severity classes has been established in a field trip to the study area. However, heterogeneous fire behaviour and patchy distribution of different vegetation structure made field classification difficult. Ground truth data has been collected in two different types of vegetation structure present in the burnt area. The burn severity measurement of high resolution Landsat data was assessed based on ground truth data. However, field data was not sufficient for rigorous validation of remote sensing data. The NBR index images of both sensors have been calibrated based on training areas in the high resolution Landsat image. The burn severity classifications of both sensors are comparable, which demonstrates the feasibility of a burn severity measurement using moderate spatial resolution 250m MODIS data. The normalisation through index calculation reduced atmospheric and BRDF effects, and thus MODIS top of at-mosphere data has been considered suitable for the burn severity measurement. The NBR could not be uniformly applied, as different structures of vegetation influenced the range of index values. Furthermore, the index was sensitive to variability in moisture content. However, the study concluded that the NBR on MODIS data is a useful measure of burn severity in the forested area of south-west WA.

Besides the unsustainable exploitation, farming activities and economic development activities, forest fire is considered as one of the major threats to biodiversity and deforestation in Vietnam. In forest ecosystems, any changes in insect communities can affect species composition, nutrient cycling and numerous other ecological processes. The impact of forest fires, however, is not equal to different insect groups. In this paper, we study the impact of forest fires to hymenopteran insects at Copia species-use forest, Son La Province. This is the first time this kind of study has been taken place in Vietnam. / Bên cạnh việc khai thác không bền vững, tập quán canh tác và các hoạt động phát triển kinh tế, cháy rừng được xem là một trong những mối đe dọa chính ảnh hưởng tiêu cực tới đa dạng sinh học và mất rừng ở Việt Nam. Trong các hệ sinh thái rừng, những thay đổi trong cấu trúc của quần xã côn trùng có ảnh hưởng tới thành phần loài, chu trình dinh dưỡng và rất nhiều quá trình sinh thái khác. Tuy nhiên mức độ ảnh hưởng của cháy rừng tới các nhóm côn trùng khác nhau là khác nhau. Trong bài báo này, chúng tôi nghiên cứu tác động của cháy rừng tới nhóm côn trùng cánh màng tại khu rừng đặc dụng Copia, tỉnh Sơn La. Đây cũng là lần đầu tiên tác động của cháy rừng tới nhóm côn trùng cánh màng được thực hiện ở Việt Nam.

Besides the unsustainable exploitation, farming activities and economic development activities, forest fire is considered as one of the major threats to biodiversity and deforestation in Vietnam. In forest ecosystems, any changes in insect communities can affect species composition, nutrient cycling and numerous other ecological processes. The impact of forest fires, however, is not equal to different insect groups. In this paper, we study the impact of forest fires to hymenopteran insects at Copia species-use forest, Son La Province. This is the first time this kind of study has been taken place in Vietnam. / Bên cạnh việc khai thác không bền vững, tập quán canh tác và các hoạt động phát triển kinh tế, cháy rừng được xem là một trong những mối đe dọa chính ảnh hưởng tiêu cực tới đa dạng sinh học và mất rừng ở Việt Nam. Trong các hệ sinh thái rừng, những thay đổi trong cấu trúc của quần xã côn trùng có ảnh hưởng tới thành phần loài, chu trình dinh dưỡng và rất nhiều quá trình sinh thái khác. Tuy nhiên mức độ ảnh hưởng của cháy rừng tới các nhóm côn trùng khác nhau là khác nhau. Trong bài báo này, chúng tôi nghiên cứu tác động của cháy rừng tới nhóm côn trùng cánh màng tại khu rừng đặc dụng Copia, tỉnh Sơn La. Đây cũng là lần đầu tiên tác động của cháy rừng tới nhóm côn trùng cánh màng được thực hiện ở Việt Nam.

Untersuchungen zur Rolle natürlicher Störungen in der Vegetation bzw. in Ökosystemen zeigen, dass natürliche Störungen ein essentielles und intrinsisches Element in Ökosystemen darstellen, substanziell zur Vitalität und strukturellen Diversität der Ökosysteme beitragen und Stoffkreisläufe sowohl auf dem lokalen als auch auf dem globalen Niveau beeinflussen. Feuer als Grasland-, Busch- oder Waldbrand ist ein besonderes Störungsagens, da es sowohl durch biotische als auch abiotische Umweltfaktoren verursacht wird. Es beeinflusst biogeochemische Kreisläufe und spielt für die chemische Zusammensetzung der Atmosphäre durch Freisetzung klimarelevanter Spurengase und Aerosole aus der Verbrennung von Biomasse eine bedeutende Rolle. Dies wird auch durch die Emission von ca. 3.9 Gt Kohlenstoff pro Jahr unterstrichen, was einen großen Anteil am globalen Gesamtaufkommen ausmacht.<br /> <br /> Ein kombiniertes Modell, das die Effekte und Rückkopplungen zwischen Feuer und Vegetation beschreibt, wurde erforderlich, als Änderungen in den Feuerregimes als Folge von Änderungen in der Landnutzung und dem Landmanagement festgestellt wurden. Diese Notwendigkeit wurde noch durch die Erkenntnis unterstrichen, daß die Menge verbrennender Biomasse als ein bedeutender Kohlenstoffluß sowohl die chemische Zusammensetzung der Atmosphäre und das Klima, aber auch die Vegetationsdynamik selbst beeinflusst. Die bereits existierenden Modellansätze reichen hier jedoch nicht aus, um entsprechende Untersuchungen durchzuführen. Als eine Schlussfolgerung daraus wurde eine optimale Menge von Faktoren gefunden, die das Auftreten und die Ausbreitung des Feuers, sowie deren ökosystemare Effekte ausreichend beschreiben. Ein solches Modell sollte die Merkmale beobachteter Feuerregime simulieren können und Analysen der Interaktionen zwischen Feuer und Vegetationsdynamik unterstützen, um auch Ursachen für bestimmte Änderungen in den Feuerregimes herausfinden zu können. Insbesondere die dynamischen Verknüpfungen zwischen Vegetation, Klima und Feuerprozessen sind von Bedeutung, um dynamische Rückkopplungen und Effekte einzelner, veränderter Umweltfaktoren zu analysieren. Dadurch ergab sich die Notwendigkeit, neue Feuermodelle zu entwickeln, die die genannten Untersuchungen erlauben und das Verständnis der Rolle des Feuer in der globalen Ökologie verbessern.<br /> <br /> Als Schlussfolgerung der Dissertation wird festgestellt, dass Feuchtebedingungen, ihre Andauer über die Zeit (Länge der Feuersaison) und die Streumenge die wichtigsten Komponenten darstellen, die die Verteilung der Feuerregime global beschreiben. Werden Zeitreihen einzelner Regionen simuliert, sollten besondere Entzündungsquellen, brandkritische Klimabedingungen und die Bestandesstruktur als zusätzliche Determinanten berücksichtigt werden. Die Bestandesstruktur verändert das Niveau des Auftretens und der Ausbreitung von Feuer, beeinflusst jedoch weniger dessen interannuelle Variabilität. Das es wichtig ist, die vollständige Wirkungskette wichtiger Feuerprozesse und deren Verknüpfungen mit der Vegetationsdynamik zu berücksichtigen, wird besonders unter Klimaänderungsbedingungen deutlich. Eine länger werdende, vom Klima abhängige Feuersaison bedeutet nicht automatisch eine im gleichen Maße anwachsende Menge verbrannter Biomasse. Sie kann durch Änderungen in der Produktivität der Vegetation gepuffert oder beschleunigt werden. Sowohl durch Änderungen der Bestandesstruktur als auch durch eine erhöhte Produktivität der Vegetation können Änderungen der Feuereigenschaften noch weiter intensiviert werden und zu noch höheren, feuerbezogenen Emissionen führen. / Studies of the role of disturbance in vegetation or ecosystems showed that disturbances are an essential and intrinsic element of ecosystems that contribute substantially to ecosystem health, to structural diversity of ecosystems and to nutrient cycling at the local as well as global level. Fire as a grassland, bush or forest fire is a special disturbance agent, since it is caused by biotic as well abiotic environmental factors. Fire affects biogeochemical cycles and plays an important role in atmospheric chemistry by releasing climate-sensitive trace gases and aerosols, and thus in the global carbon cycle by releasing approximately 3.9 Gt C p.a. through biomass burning. <br /> <br /> A combined model to describe effects and feedbacks between fire and vegetation became relevant as changes in fire regimes due to land use and land management were observed and the global dimension of biomass burnt as an important carbon flux to the atmosphere, its influence on atmospheric chemistry and climate as well as vegetation dynamics were emphasized. The existing modelling approaches would not allow these investigations. As a consequence, an optimal set of variables that best describes fire occurrence, fire spread and its effects in ecosystems had to be defined, which can simulate observed fire regimes and help to analyse interactions between fire and vegetation dynamics as well as to allude to the reasons behind changing fire regimes. Especially, dynamic links between vegetation, climate and fire processes are required to analyse dynamic feedbacks and effects of changes of single environmental factors. This led us to the point, where new fire models had to be developed that would allow the investigations, mentioned above, and could help to improve our understanding of the role of fire in global ecology. <br /> <br /> In conclusion of the thesis, one can state that moisture conditions, its persistence over time and fuel load are the important components that describe global fire pattern. If time series of a particular region are to be reproduced, specific ignition sources, fire-critical climate conditions and vegetation composition become additional determinants. Vegetation composition changes the level of fire occurrence and spread, but has limited impact on the inter-annual variability of fire. The importance to consider the full range of major fire processes and links to vegetation dynamics become apparent under climate change conditions. Increases in climate-dependent length of fire season does not automatically imply increases in biomass burnt, it can be buffered or accelerated by changes in vegetation productivity. Changes in vegetation composition as well as enhanced vegetation productivity can intensify changes in fire and lead to even more fire-related emissions. <br><br> ---<br> Anmerkung:<br> Die Autorin ist Trägerin des von der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Potsdam vergebenen Michelson-Preises für die beste Promotion des Jahres 2002/2003.

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Dissertation of Chief Fire Officer Dipl.-Ing. M. Sc. Dirk Schneider for achieving the academic degree of Dr.-Ing. of the Faculty of Forestry, Geo and Hydro Sciences of the Technical University of Dresden with the title: “Early Detection of Fires in Areas of Forests and other Vegetation” Fires threaten and destroy extensive forest and vegetation areas every year, endangering people and its settlements, leading to significant pressures on the environment and destroying considerable high value resources. The expenditures in manpower, logistics and finance for safety in general and fire suppression in particular are considerable. To minimize these varied and extensive consequences of fires, early detection is desirable, making an effective firefighting strategy possible. This early detection is particularly of importance in remote, large-scale areas and territories not under observation by the population, especially if they are subject to an increased or high vulnerability. After investigating and considering the causes, that repeatedly lead to forest fires not only in the Federal Republic of Germany but worldwide, the author describes different traditional and modern methods for early detection of fires in areas of forests and other vegetation. Furthermore the author develops a performance item catalog, basing on practical and economic experience, by which not only novel early warning systems can be developed, but the systems and methods described in the present study also are assessed and compared. The comparison of various early warning systems is guided not only by means of technical features, but also from an economic perspective. Financial calculation methods, staff costs and the peculiarities in public administration are particularly noted. The author also shows the different parameters that influence the selection of an appropriate early warning system for the detection of forest and vegetation areas. It becomes clear that it is the scene of the incident with its specific parameters that determines the most useful early warning system.

Dissertation of Chief Fire Officer Dipl.-Ing. M. Sc. Dirk Schneider for achieving the academic degree of Dr.-Ing. of the Faculty of Forestry, Geo and Hydro Sciences of the Technical University of Dresden with the title: “Early Detection of Fires in Areas of Forests and other Vegetation” Fires threaten and destroy extensive forest and vegetation areas every year, endangering people and its settlements, leading to significant pressures on the environment and destroying considerable high value resources. The expenditures in manpower, logistics and finance for safety in general and fire suppression in particular are considerable. To minimize these varied and extensive consequences of fires, early detection is desirable, making an effective firefighting strategy possible. This early detection is particularly of importance in remote, large-scale areas and territories not under observation by the population, especially if they are subject to an increased or high vulnerability. After investigating and considering the causes, that repeatedly lead to forest fires not only in the Federal Republic of Germany but worldwide, the author describes different traditional and modern methods for early detection of fires in areas of forests and other vegetation. Furthermore the author develops a performance item catalog, basing on practical and economic experience, by which not only novel early warning systems can be developed, but the systems and methods described in the present study also are assessed and compared. The comparison of various early warning systems is guided not only by means of technical features, but also from an economic perspective. Financial calculation methods, staff costs and the peculiarities in public administration are particularly noted. The author also shows the different parameters that influence the selection of an appropriate early warning system for the detection of forest and vegetation areas. It becomes clear that it is the scene of the incident with its specific parameters that determines the most useful early warning system.:Vorwort 3 Abstract 6 Inhaltsverzeichnis 7 1 Einleitung 12 2 Ziel- und Aufgabenstellung 17 3 Vorbetrachtungen und Stand des Wissens 18 3.1 Die Waldbrandsituation 18 3.2 Brandursachen in Wäldern und Vegetationsgebieten 21 3.3 Methoden der Waldbrandfrüherkennung 27 3.3.1 Herkömmliche Methoden der Waldbrandfrüherkennung 27 3.3.1.1 Notrufmeldung durch die Öffentlichkeit 27 3.3.1.2 Feuerwachtürme 29 3.3.1.3 Luftbeobachtung 35 3.3.1.3.1 Feuerwehrflugdienst Niedersachsen 39 3.3.1.3.2 Luftrettungsstaffel Bayern 44 3.3.1.3.3 Avialesookhrana 47 3.3.2 Moderne Systeme 50 3.3.2.1 Terrestrische Systeme 51 3.3.2.1.1 Firewatch 53 3.3.2.1.2 Firehawk Forestwatch 69 3.3.2.1.3 Integriertes Waldbrand-Beobachtungssystem (IPNAS) 72 3.3.2.1.4 FireALERT 76 3.3.2.1.5 Fire Wall 83 3.3.2.1.6 Radio-Akustisches-Sondierungssystem (RASS) 87 3.3.2.1.7 Mobile Biological Sensors (MBS) 93 3.3.2.1.8 Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) 101 3.3.2.1.9 Golden Eye 104 3.3.2.2 Aeronautische Systeme 108 3.3.2.2.1 National Infrared Operations Program (NIROPS) 108 3.3.2.2.2 Wildfire Airborne Sensor Program (WASP) 116 3.3.2.2.3 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) 121 3.3.2.2.4 Luftschiffe 130 3.3.2.3 Orbitale Systeme 135 3.3.2.3.1 Nomos 137 3.3.2.3.2 Bispectral Infrared Detection (BIRD) 141 3.3.2.3.3 Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 146 3.3.2.3.4 Polar Operational Environmental Satellite Project (POES) 151 4 Material und Methoden 154 4.1 Material 155 4.1.1 Fachliteratur und Forschungsberichte 155 4.1.2 Fachberichte internationaler staatlicher Dienststellen 155 4.1.3 Technische Betriebsunterlagen von Herstellern 155 4.2 Methoden 156 4.2.1 Gespräche und Interviews 156 4.2.2 Praxisorientiertes Erfahrungs- und Anwenderwissen 156 4.2.3 Vergleich zur Bewertung der technischen Leistungsfähigkeit 157 4.2.4 Wirtschaftlichkeit 159 4.2.4.1 Wirtschaftlichkeit unter betriebs- und finanzwirtschaftlicher Betrachtung 160 4.2.4.1.1 Die Wirtschaftlichkeitsanalyse 161 4.2.4.1.1.1 Wirtschaftlichkeitsrechnung 161 4.2.4.1.1.1.1 Statische Verfahren 161 4.2.4.1.1.1.1.1 Kosten- und Gewinnvergleichsrechnung 162 4.2.4.1.1.1.1.2 Rentabilitätsvergleichsrechnung 162 4.2.4.1.1.1.1.3 Amortisationsvergleichsrechnung 162 4.2.4.1.1.1.2 Dynamische Verfahren 163 4.2.4.1.1.1.2.1 Kapitalwertmethode 163 4.2.4.1.1.1.2.2 Internal Rate of Return 164 4.2.4.1.1.1.2.3 Annuitätenmethode 164 4.2.4.1.1.2 Kosten-Nutzen-Analyse 165 4.2.4.1.1.3 Nutzwertanalyse 165 4.2.4.2 Wirtschaftlichkeit in der öffentlichen Verwaltung 166 4.2.4.3 Personalkosten 170 4.2.4.4 Kostenvergleich verschiedener Früherkennungssysteme 172 5 Entwicklung eines Leistungspositionskataloges 174 5.1 Funktionale Anforderungen 176 5.1.1 Melde- und Dispositionszeiten 176 5.1.1.1 Frühzeitige Branderkennung 176 5.1.1.2 Schnelle Meldewege 177 5.1.1.3 Automatisierte Ortsbestimmung 177 5.1.2 Einsatzbereitschaft 177 5.2 Nicht-Funktionale Anforderungen 178 5.2.1 Zuverlässigkeit 178 5.2.1.1 Geringe Fehlalarm- und Detektionsverlustrate 178 5.2.1.2 Wetterunabhängigkeit 179 5.2.1.3 Temperaturunabhängigkeit 179 5.2.1.4 UV-Beständigkeit 179 5.2.1.5 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit 179 5.2.1.6 Reduktion von Täuschungsalarmen 180 5.2.1.7 Zwei-Linien-Abhängigkeit 180 5.2.2 Leistungsvermögen 181 5.2.2.1 Automatisches Wirken 181 5.2.2.2 Einsatzinformationsprojektion 181 5.2.3 Benutzbarkeit 181 5.2.3.1 Bedienbarkeit 181 5.2.3.2 Intuitive Erfassbarkeit 182 5.2.4 Portierung und Übertragung 182 5.2.4.1 Leitstellenaufschaltung 182 5.2.4.2 Geoinformationssystem 182 5.2.4.3 Schnittstelle für Wetterinformationen 183 5.2.4.4 Kommunikationsredundanz 183 5.2.4.5 Kompatibilität 183 5.2.4.6 Ergonomie, Design und Ästhetik 183 5.3 Sicherheitsanforderungen 184 5.3.1 Umweltsicherheit 184 5.3.1.1 Gesundheitsschutz 184 5.3.1.2 Umweltverträglichkeit 184 5.3.2 Technische Betriebssicherheit 185 5.3.2.1 Systemstabilität 185 5.3.2.2 Unabhängigkeit von Dritten 185 5.3.2.3 Zwei-Wege-Energieversorgung 185 5.3.2.4 Umweltresistenz 186 5.4 Wirtschaftlichkeit 186 5.4.1 Wartung und Instandsetzung 186 5.4.2 Erweiterbarkeit 186 5.5 Der Leistungspositionskatalog 187 6 Ergebnisse 188 6.1 Die Notwendigkeit des Einsatzes von Früherkennungssystemen 189 6.2 Grundlegende Bewertung der Leistungsfähigkeit 190 6.2.1 Public Report (Notrufmeldung durch die Öffentlichkeit) 192 6.2.2 Feuerwachtürme 193 6.2.3 Luftbeobachtung 193 6.2.4 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) 194 6.2.5 Luftschiffe 195 6.2.6 Terrestrische CCTV-Technik 196 6.2.7 Terrestrische OSS-Videotechnik 196 6.2.8 Erdgebundene Infrarotsysteme 197 6.2.9 Erdgebundene Temperatursensoren 197 6.2.10 Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) 198 6.2.11 Sonic Detection and Ranging (SODAR) und Radio-Akustische-Sondierungssysteme (RASS) 199 6.2.12 Mobile biologische Sensoren (MBS) 200 6.2.13 Satellitentechnologie 201 6.2.14 Zusammenfassung der grundlegenden Bewertung 201 6.3 Bewertung nach dem Leistungspositionskatalog 204 6.3.1 Erfüllung der funktionalen Anforderungen 205 6.3.2 Erfüllung der nicht-funktionalen Anforderungen 206 6.3.3 Erfüllung der Sicherheitsanforderungen 206 6.3.4 Betrachtung der Wirtschaftlichkeit 207 6.3.5 Public Report (Notrufmeldung durch die Öffentlichkeit) 207 6.3.6 Feuerwachturm 209 6.3.7 Luftbeobachtung 212 6.3.8 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) 213 6.3.9 Luftschiffe 216 6.3.10 CCTV-Technik 218 6.3.11 OSS-Videotechnik 220 6.3.12 Erdgebundene Infrarotsysteme 222 6.3.13 Erdgebundene Temperatursysteme 224 6.3.14 Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) 226 6.3.15 Sonic Detection and Ranging (SODAR) und Radio-Akustische-Sondierungssysteme (RASS) 228 6.3.16 Mobile biologische Sensoren (MBS) 229 6.3.17 Satellitentechnologie 232 6.3.18 Zusammenfassung der Bewertung nach dem Leistungspositionskatalog 235 6.4 Bewertung anhand komplexer Kriterien 243 6.5 Die Vulnerabilität von Ökosystemen 244 6.6 Kostenvergleich ausgewählter Früherkennungssysteme 246 6.7 Bewertung der betriebs- und finanzwirtschaftlichen Methoden 257 6.8 Wirtschaftlichkeit und beeinflussende Nebenaspekte 258 6.9 Die Anwendung von Analysemethoden 261 7 Diskussion 263 7.1 Grundlagen und Methoden der Waldbrandfrüherkennung 263 7.2 Die Komplexität der Findung eines geeigneten Früherkennungssystems 276 7.3 Der Kostenvergleich von Früherkennungssystemen 276 7.4 Allgemeine Wirtschaftlichkeit 278 7.5 Technische Wirtschaftlichkeit 278 7.6 Finanz- und betriebswirtschaftliche Methoden 279 8 Schlussfolgerungen 280 8.1 Lehre zur Bedeutung von Wald- und Vegetationsgebieten 280 8.2 Prävention und Aufklärung 281 8.3 Schutzbedarf feuerunabhängiger Ökosysteme 282 8.4 Notwendigkeit des Einsatzes von Früherkennungssystemen 282 8.5 Der Einfluss der Empfindlichkeit eines Ökosystems 283 8.6 Technische Weiterentwicklung des Systems Feuerwachturm 284 8.7 Erfüllung funktionaler und nicht-funktionaler Anforderungen 285 8.8 Die Gewährleistung der Umweltsicherheit 286 8.9 Unzulässigkeit der Verwendung von Tieren als Früherkennungssystem 286 8.10 Die Wirtschaftlichkeit von Früherkennungssystemen 287 8.11 Die interdisziplinäre Nutzung zur Senkung von Kosten 288 8.12 Der Leistungspositionskatalog als Werkzeug 288 8.13 Orbitaler Systemverbund für den globalen Umweltschutz 289 8.14 Minimierung von Fehlalarmen durch Zwei-Linien-Abhängigkeit 290 8.15 Kombination unterschiedlicher Methoden zum Erhalt eines Idealsystems 291 8.16 Örtliche Bedingungen bestimmen das Früherkennungssystem 292 9 Zusammenfassung 293 10 Quellen- und Literaturverzeichnis (numerisch) 296 11 Quellen- und Literaturverzeichnis (alphabetisch) 338 Anhang I: Abkürzungsverzeichnis 344 Anhang II: Bilderverzeichnis 348 Anhang III: Tabellenverzeichnis 353 Anhang IV: Index 354

Fires occur in most forest reserves in Ghana. However, there is a limited understanding of the fires and their behaviour in the different ecological zones. Therefore, this research was to analyze the spatial and temporal distribution of fires, examine the driving factors, direct and underlying causes and impacts of the fires, determine and compare the fuel dynamics to predict fire behaviour and estimate the effects of fire on carbon stocks in different ecological zones of Ghana. The research used different methodologies including questionnaires, fire records, satellite fire data from MODIS (2001 to 2015) (first approach) and field experiment (second approach). A total of 304 respondents was sampled for eight communities, two communities each around the moist and dry semi-deciduous forest, upland evergreen forest and savanna. The spatial distribution of fire showed a trend along the forest boundaries, open vegetation, degraded areas, human settlements, shrubs, farms, rivers and roads. The temporal trend was significant in the dry forest (435 hotspots), followed by the savanna (229 hotspots), moist forest (76 hotspots) and the least in the evergreen forest (5 hotspots). The fires were observed from August, October to May with the dry forest having the longest seasonality. Sunday, Tuesday and Thursday were the peak days of the detected fire hotspots in the dry, moist and savanna respectively. Most of the fires in the different ecological zones peaked from 13 to 14 pm. The results of the research also revealed that the fires were driven primarily by socioeconomic factors which were supported by environmental, type of vegetation and cultural factors. In all the ecological zones, fires were originating from humans. The study pointed out three categories of human-caused fires through activity (farming), non-activity (carelessness or negligence) and others (unknown causes). The major underlying causes of fire mentioned were the inadequate management of the forest and weak compliance and enforcement of forest laws. All these fires have resulted in several impacts in the various ecological zones. Concerning the fuel dynamics, the total downed woody fuel load in the evergreen forest was found to be higher (228 and 208.4 tonnes per hectare). The litter and duff density (112.2 kilogram per cubic meter) in unburned area and loading (6.3 and 13.5 tonnes per hectare) for both burned and unburned area respectively were significantly greater in the moist forest. Also, the dry forest showed 2.4 tonnes per hectare of herbaceous loading in the burned area. However, fires were predicted to be severe in the savanna regarding the surface rate of spread, flame length and fireline intensity, but with low reaction intensity and heat per unit area. The total amount of aboveground tree carbon, aboveground non-tree and belowground root for both burned and the unburned area varied under the different ecological zones. The highest was seen in the moist forest with the emission of 294 tonnes of carbon per hectare accounting for 82% losses. This research has brought out the current situation of fire in the various ecological zones for the implementation of necessary actions for the future.