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Vid framställning av papper och pappersmassa krävs en stor mängd energi och även stora mängder vatten som med fördel tas från en närliggande sjö eller vattendrag. Avloppsvattnet passerar flera olika reningssteg såsom mekanisk, kemisk och biologisk rening innan det återinförs till recipienten. Vid aerob biologisk rening sker en nedbrytning och oxidation av det organiska materialet som utförs av mikroorganismer. Aeroba mikroorganismer kräver närvaro av syre varvid luft tillsätts till dammen. Luftningen utgör drygt hälften av det externa reningsverkets totala energibehov och försvåras av extraktivämnen som finns i träden. Vid Stora Enso Skoghalls bruk används en luftad damm som biologisk rening. Det finns problem med att få syret att räcka till i hela dammen. Om ett försteg placeras innan dammen skulle detta kunna bryta ned en del av de syreförbrukande ämnena. Förstegets utformning skulle vara en MBBR (Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor) innehållande bärare där termofila bakterier bildar biofilm. Två olika försöksuppställningar byggdes upp i ett laboratorium på Karlstads Universitet innehållande MBBR och luftade dammar. De luftade dammarna skulle likna Skoghalls bruks luftade damm med samma uppehållstid och innehålla samma sorts mikroorganismer. Processvattnet hämtades från Skoghalls bruk och pumpades kontinuerligt in till försöksuppställningarna. Vattnet togs från två olika ställen på bruket och innehöll dels CTMP och dels CTMP blandat med vatten från blekeriet och indunstningen. För utvärderingar av försöken utfördes analyser av COD, TOC, SÄ, SVI, ytspänning, extraktivämnen samt mikroskopering. Resultatet uppvisade en relativt jämn COD-och TOC-reduktion för de luftade dammarna på runt 70 %, vilket är jämförbara värden med Skoghalls bruks luftade damm. För det termofila MBBR-försteget med temperaturen 45 °C uppvisades en reduktionskapacitet på 30 – 40 %. Resultatet vid körning med vatten innehållande endast CTMP påvisades en reduktion på 30 %. Mätning av ytspänning och extraktivämnen ger en indikation på om syresättningen av avloppsvattnet kan bli effektivare. Det visade sig att biofilmen i de termofila stegen är mycket känslig och relativt enkel att slå ut om förhållandena för de termofila bakterierna inte är optimala eller om inkommande vatten innehåller någon giftig substans. Bioslammet i samtliga luftade dammar bestod av både bakterier, protozoer och metazoer. I referensdammen uppvisades stora och kompakta flockar medan det för dammarna som föregicks av termofila MBBR påvisade mindre slam och mindre kompakta flockar. För dammen innehållande endast CTMP påvisades förutom att flockarna var små även flytslam och skumproblem. / The production of pulp and paper requires a large amount of energy and also large amounts of water which, by advantage, can be taken from a nearby lake or river. The wastewater passes through several different purification steps, such as mechanical, chemical and biological treatment before being reintroduced to the recipient. During aerobic biological treatment, a degradation and oxidation of the organic material occurs and is performed by microorganisms which require oxygen. Aeration consumes about half of the external plant's total energy and is aggravated by extractives present in the trees. At Stora Enso Skoghall mill an aerated pond is used as biological treatment, but there are troubles to get the oxygen to last for the entire pond. If a pre-treatment is placed before the pond this would be able to reduce the substances which demands oxygen. The implementation of the pre-treatment would be a MBBR (Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor) containing carriers and where thermophilic bacteria form biofilms. The experimental setups were built up in a laboratory at the University of Karlstad. The aerated ponds would resemble the aerated pond at Skoghall mill, with an identical retention time and contain equivalent microorganisms. The wastewater was continuously pumped into the experimental setups and was received from Skoghall mill and contained only CTMP water and CTMP mixed with water from the bleach plant and evaporation plant. As evaluation of the experiments analyzes of COD, TOC, SS, SVI, surface tension, extractives and microscopy were done. The results showed a relatively uniform COD and TOC reduction for the aerated ponds at around 70 %, which is comparable with the real pond at Skoghall mill. For the thermophilic MBBR with a temperature of 45° C and with probe 10-water, a capacity of reduction at 30 - 40% was noticed. The result with water containing only CTMP showed a reduction of 30%. Measurements of surface tension and extractives show if the concentration of extractives is decreasing in the thermophilic pre-treatments and also in the aerated ponds, which indicates a more effective oxygenation of the water. It was also found that the biofilm in the thermophilic stages are very sensitive and relatively easy to decimate if the conditions for the thermophilic bacteria are not optimal or if the incoming water contains any toxic substance. The sludge in all aerated ponds consisted of bacteria, protozoa and metazoa. The reference pond showed large and dense flocks while for the ponds that were preceded by thermophilic MBBR indicated less sludge and less dense flocks. For pond containing CTMP-water the flocks were small, but in addition, floating sludge was detected and foam problems arose.

Cette thèse porte sur le comportement d’un composé prioritaire au titre de la Directive Cadre sur l’Eau au niveau européen : le tributylétain (TBT) et ses métabolites (dibutylétain (DBT) et monobutylétain (MBT)). On s’intéresse plus particulièrement aux eaux usées domestiques lors de leur transit dans deux stations d’épuration par lagunage naturel (STEP), traitement adapté aux effluents provenant des zones faiblement urbanisées. Ce travail de thèse vient combler le manque de résultats scientifiques sur (1) le niveau des concentrations en butylétains dans les effluents domestiques des zones peu urbanisées en entrée des stations par lagunage et en sortie après traitement ; (2) l’efficacité du traitement par lagunage à éliminer les butylétains ; (3)l’identification des processus qui contrôlent le devenir de ces éléments au cours du traitement.Les butylétains sont mesurés dans les matrices particulaires, dissoutes et dans les boues, par couplage GC-ICP-MS, dans toutes les étapes du traitement par lagunage de deux communes rurales du département de l’Hérault (34,France) : Gigean (6000 eq-hab.) et Montbazin (4500 eq-hab.). On montre que les trois espèces butylées sont systématiquement présentes dans tous les échantillons prélevés sur les deux STEP. Les butylétains arrivent principalement sous forme particulaire dans les eaux brutes en entrée des stations. Au cours du traitement, les processus de sorption sur les particules en suspension et la décantation de ces dernières au fond de chaque bassin sont les principaux facteurs permettant l’élimination des butylétains. Les premiers bassins anaérobies, de grande profondeur et de long temps de séjour, permettent l’élimination de plus de 60% à Gigean (93% à Montbazin) des butylétains. Les boues de fond de chaque bassin montrent des concentrations élevées en butylétains. La remise en suspension des butylétains est notée dans les derniers bassins de finition, peu profonds, ce qui peut être due à la re-stratification thermique. En sortie de station, malgré les abattements importants, des concentrations non négligeables en butylétains (12 à 228 et 1.8 à 15 ng(Sn).L-1 respectivement pour Montbazin et Gigean) sont rejetées dans le milieu récepteur. Des expériences de sorption basées sur la mise en contact de butylétains avec des boues de fond de bassin diluées ont été effectuées selon plusieurs approches expérimentales. On a ainsi montré que (1) la distribution des espèces MBT, DBT, TBT, entre les phases solide et liquide, est variable d’un test à l’autre selon les conditions opératoires ; (2) l’affinité entre les butylétains et la boue est importante, quelle que soit sa provenance. 98% des butylétains se retrouvent dans la phase solide, du fait de leur hydrophobicité. Le coefficient de distribution Kd entre le TBT et les boues est plus élevé que celui obtenu pour d’autres type de phases solides (75000 L.kg- 1) ; (3) le processus de sorption est rapide. De plus des processus de sorption, désorption et déalkylation du TBT, expliquant les variations des concentrations en MBT et DBT dans la phase solide ont été identifiés. La désorption du TBT est rapide. Il se dégrade dans la phase liquide en DBT dont une partie se transforme en MBT. La sorption du MBT sur les boues a été systématiquement mesurée. Le phénomène de sorption n’est donc pas complètement réversible au cours du temps. Ces résultats contribuent à expliquer les dysfonctionnements observés dans les stations de traitement par lagunage, par exemple lors d’apports directs d’eau de pluie.Cette thèse démontre la présence systématique des butylétains dans les stations d’épuration par lagunage naturel. Les données acquises in-situ couplées à des essais en laboratoire permettent de comprendre le comportement de ces composés lors de ce traitement : la fraction solide joue un rôle clé dans les processus de sorption-désorption-(bio)dégradation des butylétains. / This thesis deals with the behavior of a priority compound on the basis of the framework Directive on water at European level: tributyltin (TBT) ) and its metabolites (dibutyltin (DBT) and monobutyltin (MBT)). The study is focused on two waste stabilization pond treatment plants (WSP), which is an appropriate treatment to domestic effluents from sparsely urbanized areas.This thesis comes to fill the lack of scientific results on (1) the level of butyltin concentrations in domestic effluents from sparsely urbanized areas, in the input of the WSP and the output after treatment; (2) the efficiency of butyltins elimination by the WSP treatment; (3) the identification of the processes that control the fate of these elements during the treatment.Butyltins are measured in particulate and dissolved matrices and in sludge, by GC-ICP-MS, in all stages of the treatment by lagooning of two villages of the Department of Hérault (34, France): Gigean (6000 p.e.) and Montbazin (4500 p.e.).It is shown that the three butyltin species are consistently present in all samples taken from the two WSP. Butyltins arrive primarily in particulate form in the raw water. During treatment, the processes of sorption onto particulate matter and the settling of the latter at the bottom of each basin are the main factors for the elimination of butyltins. The first anaerobic ponds, characterized by deep depth and long residence times, allow the elimination of more than 60% Gigean (93% at Montbazin) of butyltins. Bottom sludge of each basin show high butyltins concentrations. The resuspension of butyltins is noted in the last maturation ponds, characterized by shallow depth, which may be due to re-thermal stratification. At the outlet, despite significant butyltin removal, concentrations in butyltins remain high (12 to 228 and 1.8 to 15 ng (Sn). L-1, respectively for Montbazin and Gigean).Laboratory batch experiments were conducted to study sorption processes following several experimental protocols. It was thus shown that: (1) the distribution of the butyltin species between solid and liquid phases is different from one test to another according to the operating conditions; (2) the affinity between butyltins and bottom sludge is important, regardless of its provenance. 98% of the butyltins are found in the solid phase, due to their hydrophobicity. The TBT sludge-water partition coefficient is higher than that obtained for other type of solid phases (75000 L.kg-1); (3) the process of sorption is fast.Moreover processes of sorption, desorption and dealkylation of TBT, explaining changes in concentrations of MBT and DBT in the solid phase were identified. Desorption of TBT is fast. It degrades in the liquid phase in DBT which part turns into MBT. The sorption of MBT on sludge has been systematically measured. Therefore, the sorption phenomenon is not completely reversible over time. These results help to explain the dysfunctions observed in WSP, for example after direct inputs of rainwater.This thesis shows the systematic presence of butyltin in waste stabilization pond treatment plants. In-situ data coupled with laboratory tests allow to understand the behaviour of these compounds during this treatment: the solid fraction plays a key role in the processes of sorption-desorption-(bio) degradation of butyltins.

The environmental occurrence and behaviour of the brominated flame retardant (BFR) decabromodiphenyl ethane (dbdpe) has only been studied to a limited extent. It is structurally similar to decabromodiphenyl ether (decaBDE), which makes it conceivable that dbdpe may also become an environmental contaminant of concern. A method for environmental analysis and comparative assessments of dbdpe and decaBDE was developed. Both BFRs were studied in: a mass balance of the Henriksdal WWTP in Stockholm (Paper I); an international survey of sewage sludge (Paper II); sediment along a transect from Henriksdal WWTP to the outer archipelago of Stockholm and from isolated Swedish lakes (Paper III); and a benthic food web from the Scheldt estuary (Paper IV). Dbdpe was found in sludge from every country surveyed, indicating that it may be a worldwide concern. The WWTP mass balance showed that virtually all of the BFRs were transferred from wastewater to sludge. A small fraction was emitted via the effluent, confirming emissions to the aquatic environment. In the marine sediment, the BFR levels close to the WWTP outfall were high. They decreased along the transect to low levels in the outer archipelago. The study of lake sediment showed a widespread presence of dbdpe in the Swedish environment and provided evidence that it originates from long range atmospheric transport. In the food web, dbdpe did bioaccumulate to a small extent which was similar to decaBDE. The transfer of the BFRs from sediment to benthic invertebrates was low, while transfer from prey to predator was higher. Biodilution was observed rather than biomagnification. This work suggests that the persistence, the susceptibility to long range atmospheric transport, and the potential for bioaccumulation are similar for dbdpe and the regulated decaBDE that it is replacing. Thus, there is a risk that a problematic environmental pollutant is being replaced with a chemical that is equally problematic. / At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Submitted. Paper 4: Manuscript.

The management of water resources and waste water varies between the countries of the EU. For many years, a large part of the water in Europe has been contaminated by, among other things, insufficiently treated waste water and emissions from agriculture. The EU Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC and the Urban Waste Water Directive 91/271/EEC are intended to harmonize fresh-water management and waste water management within the whole EU, aiming at safeguarding drinking water of good quality and a high quality of all water within the EU today and in the future. There are however some problems concerning the waste-water directive. One problem is the huge investment needed in Slovakia to fulfil the demands of the waste-water directive for waste-water management in larger communities (with more than 2000 inhabitants). Many waste-water treatment plants need to be upgraded or built, and in addition a large part of the households in eastern Slovakia are not yet connected to a municipal water-supply and waste-water collecting system (including waste-water treatment). Subsidies from the EU’s structural funds are needed for Slovakia to fulfil the requirements of the waste-water directive. Because this directive only applies to larger communities, smaller communities and private sewage are not affected by the directive and therefore, in general, not eligible for financial funding from EU. Financial funding, however, is needed for addressing inadequate sewage in small communities with poor socioeconomic and municipal financial resources. For water protection to be effective, it is important to take also private sewage emissions into consideration, even though they might appear insignificant. Point emissions from insufficient private sewage (private sewage systems with insufficient waste-water treatment or emission of untreated waste water), primarily in small, tightly clustered communities in Slovakia or for example in Sweden in areas where weekend houses are being converted into permanent dwellings, are potential sources of pollution that can cause health or/and environmental problems. Inadequate private sewage can thus reduce the quality of both surface and ground water and have a negative impact on aquatic ecosystems, which in turn makes it more difficult to reach the quality standards of the Water Framework Directive and its daughter directives. This applies to both Slovakia and Sweden. The private sewage solutions that are recommended today are often satisfactory but not without problems. To give an example, miniature waste water treatment plants are expensive to put in place, require technological knowledge on the part of the property owner and they also require a daily flow of waste water to function properly. Improper handling of the miniature water treatment plant may cause inefficient or no water treatment at all, in some cases the bacterial content of the waste water may increase instead of being reduced. To address the problem concerning private sewage it is important that (1) waste-water solutions are adapted to local circumstances and financial funding are given to economically week municipalities (2) the property owner (owner of the private sewage) regularly controls the quality of the out-going treated wastewater (if it is possible) and (3) that efficient inspections with injunctions (from authorities) are carried out to discover faulty private sewage. Unfortunately financial funding, in general, is not given to small municipalities and/or inappropriate private sewage and inspections, both in Slovakia and Sweden, are generally slow.

Sludge, produced in the waste water treatment process, can be used as fertilizer in agriculture. It is rich in nutrients but also contains other substances, such as heavy metals. Metals may enter crops which means that it also enters the food chain. Some heavy metals have been proven to cause severe damage to living organisms in high doses. It is therefore important to regulate the amount of heavy metals in the soil and in the sludge used as fertilizer. In this thesis the sources of heavy metals in the waste water system in the town of Västerås was examined. The sources of the heavy metals cadmium, chromium, mercury, copper and zinc were mainly analyzed by using the Excel tool "Source Finder". In this tool collected data of emissions or calculated emissions by the use of model values were entered. Households proved to be the single largest source of all the metals in this study, with the exeption of chromium. For cadmium and chromium water leakage from the ground water into the pipe system was a large contributing source. Business did not prove to be a large source of any metal with the exception of dental units which emitted large amounts of mercury. To be able to predict change of quality, in regards of metals, in the sludge and puried water an existing model of the water treatment plant was supplemented with processes regarding separation of copper. This was done by studying other models regarding metal partitioning and separation. The final model proved unable to describe variances in the measured data, but could describe the median concentration of copper in cleansed water and sludge.

This masters thesis is dealing with energetic evaluation of selected municipal WWTP – WWTP Polička. First chapter, introduction explains basic terms and goals of thesis. Second chapter explains energy audit, energy audit process its scope and contents. Third chapter deals with assesing life cycle using LCA (life cycle assesment). Fourth chapter deal with energy consumption at WWTP in Czech Republic as well as in the world. Fifth chapter describes technology of WWTP Polička and its fundamental objects. Sixth chapter is assesment of WWTP Polička from hydraulic point of view and assesment of selected machinery. Further there is summation of capital and operational costs followed by capital investment return.

This Master’s Thesis deals with a question of the current methods of treatment of sewage sludge. The main objective is to compare the financial cost of conventional drying with solar drying. In the first part is described process of the treatment sludge and its disposal options. The Thesis also describes different methods of drying sewage sludge.

Denna fältstudie kommer att undersöka betydelsen av regnvattenanvändning som vattenförsörjnings alternativ. Hur kan hållbara innovativa lösningar tas fram för att lösa vattenförsörjningen på Sri Lanka? Efter lidandet av mer än 30 års inbördeskrig och efter de omfattande skadorna från tsunamin 2004, står nu Sri Lanka inför många utmaningar rörande landets återuppbyggnad. Tillgången till vatten är den viktigaste grundläggande förutsättningen för ett fungerande samhälle. I landets torra zon är det långa perioder av torka då vattenkällor sinar och inget naturligt vatten finns att tillgå. Detta trots att det under monsunen kommer tillräckligt med regn för att täcka vattenbehovet om det skulle samlas på ett optimalt sätt. Avrinningskoefficienten är här mer än 60% outnyttjat regnvatten. I ett flertal lyckade projekt har man samlat regnvatten i RWH system för senare användning. Människor i dessa områden saknar kranvatten eftersom detta område ej är täckt av vattenförsörjningsnätet. Detta gör att dessa människor har en positiv inställning till att ha RWH system..I den våta zonen, och då speciellt i Colombos stadsmiljö som denna studie handlar om, är situationen annorlunda. Här har de flesta invånare kranvatten. Det kommunala kranvattnet är högt subventionerat av regeringen vilket gör att kostnaden är låg för användarna samt ökar vattenkonsumtionen. Invånarna känner inget ansvar för vattenresurserna eftersom den gemena uppfattningen är att det är en evig källa. Majoriteten av hushållen ser inget skäl till att installera RWH på grund av den låga lönsamheten. Trots att det finns ett förordnande att det ska ingå ett RWH system, så följs inte detta. Saknande av uppföljningsplikt anges som orsak av vatten styrelsen. Kostnaden för att behandla och leverera vatten till invånarna är väldigt hög och är mycket energi krävande. Det finns ett behov av enorma investeringar för att rusta upp och bygga ut både vattenverken och vattennätet för att klara av att möta det växande invånarantalet i Colombo området. Ett annat problem är att 40% av hushållen i Colombo saknar avloppsanslutning. De leder sitt avloppsvatten direkt eller efter en septi-tank ut i jorden eller havet.Om medvetenheten kring dessa frågor ökar, samt att förhållandet mellan kranvattnets kostnad och RWH justeras med ändringar i subventionerna, kunde en hållbar lösning på vattensituationen med såväl ekonomiska som miljövinster ske.Resultatet av denna studie är att RWH får ses som ett komplement när det gäller vattenförsörjningen för hushållens del. Fokus bör istället ligga på industrier, sjukhus, skolor, kommunala byggnader och andra byggnader med stora vattenbehov och med de största möjligheterna att uppnå optimalt resultat.Studien visar också på en hållbar lösning på avloppshanteringen. Den visar DWWT och dess fördelar. / The field study will investigate the importance of Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) as a water supply option. How can sustainable innovative solutions be developed to solve the water problem of Sri Lanka? Suffering from more than 30 years of civil war and damages after being struck by the tsunami 2004, Sri Lanka faces many challenges to recover and rebuilt the country. The access to water is the most important need for a civilization´s existence. In the dry zones of the island people suffer from long drought periods with dried up wells and no natural sources for water. However the rainfall during the monsoon, even in these areas, is more than enough to provide the water needs if properly collected, thus the run-off coefficient is more than 60%. Several projects with rain water harvesting in so called RWH systems have been implemented with success. Because these areas are not covered by the water supply net and therefore have no tap water, the people are very positive to having the RWH system. In the wet zones and especially in the urban environment of Colombo the situation is different. Here most of the people have treated pipe-borne tap water. The metered tap water is highly subsidized by the government which makes the cost low for the users and increases the water consumption. The citizens do not feel a responsibility to be careful with resources since the common opinion is that water is a never ending source. The majority of the households find no reasons for installing a RWH system because it´s low economic profits. Even if there is a legislation that demands all new buildings should have a RWH system not many households have installed these systems. However the cost to deliver and treat this water is very expensive for the government and demands a lot of energy. Huge investments need to be done in both the treatment plants and the pipe-line net to meet the growing population in Colombo area. Another problem is that 40% of the households today in Colombo have no sewage connection but lead their wastewater directly or after a septic tank into the ground or the sea. If the awareness regarding these concerns could be improved and the conditions between tap water costs and RWH be adjusted with changes in the subsidized system, a sustainable solution to the water situation in Colombo with both economic and environmental benefits could be found. The result from the case study is a recommendation about installing RWH as a complimentary source of water for the households. And investments in RWH systems should be focused to industries, hospitals, schools, municipal buildings and other public buildings with a high water demand and with the best possibilities for optimal results. Further the case study treats a sustainable solution to the sewage situation. It shows the Decentralized waste water treatment plant (DWWT) and its advantages.