Caulerpa taxifolia is a marine alga notorious for its introduction and subsequent colonization of the Mediterranean Sea. It is recognized as one of the 100 worst invasive species, and it is suggested that much of its expansion may have been at the expense of native seagrass beds. To date, the bulk of research on C. taxifolia has centred on quantifying expansion and methods of eradication. There are few quantitative data on the relationship between C. taxifolia growth and environmental characteristics (e.g. light, temperature, nutrients). Furthermore, once C. taxifolia has been introduced to a system it is exceptionally difficult and expensive to eradicate. Accordingly the implications, both positive and negative, of this new habitat type must be considered in the context of the new habitat mosaic into which it fits. Australia is unique in that it has both native and invasive populations of C. taxifolia. These populations offer not only an opportunity to examine the dynamics of C. taxifolia beds and their associated communities at different latitudes and temperature and light regimes, but especially in the context of a high diversity marine coastal environment. The objectives of this thesis were to use native (Moreton Bay, Queensland) and invasive (Pittwater, New South Wales and Port River, South Australia) populations of C. taxifolia to: 1) quantify the relationship between environmental drivers (light, temperature, nutrients) and C. taxifolia growth, and 2) examine differences in habitat use and function between seagrass, C. taxifolia, unvegetated substrate. Most of the locations in Australia where large C. taxifolia beds occur are adjacent to urban areas that have a degraded water quality. Manipulative experiments in Moreton Bay demonstrated that nutrients stimulate C. taxifolia growth, however, light availability and seasonality appear to influence the response of C. taxifolia growth to nutrients. Short-term manipulative experiments were conducted across a range of seasons and locations, to capture the effects of temperature on growth. Temperature was the dominant factor affecting rate of stolon extension in both native and invasive locations. Colonization potential of C. taxifolia appears to be driven by ambient water quality (light and nutrients) and bed expansion is driven by temperature in systems where nutrients are saturating. Epifaunal communities sampled by beam trawl were dominated by the families Palaeomonidae, Terapontidae, Scorpaenidae, Monacanthidae, Syngnathidae, Gobiidae, and were largely similar between seagrasses and C. taxifolia; however, syngnathids were absent from C. taxifolia beds. I examined habitat use patterns between seagrass (Zostera muelleri), C. taxifolia, and unvegetated substrate. Fish preferred seagrass to C. taxifolia; however, in the absence of a seagrass fish used C. taxifolia. While C. taxifolia may have similar structural benefits to some seagrasses, there are fewer food resources available within C. taxifolia beds. Furthermore, grazing may be limited to a few specialist grazers. Within the habitat mosaic, C. taxifolia will provide some benefit over an unvegetated substrate; however, that benefit might mask losses in system quality or resilience by decreasing the threshold level for change within the community. Therefore, should a perturbation occur (e.g. sudden drop in water temperature, filamentous algal bloom) a system comprised solely of seagrass could withstand such stress; however, a habitat mosaic of seagrass and C. taxifolia could have a rapid and dramatic loss in its ability to sustain a diverse faunal community. Ultimately, it is most important to protect the system from anthropogenic degradation so it is more resilient to environmental changes.

The relationships between metal exposure, dose and response were investigated in two sediment dwelling marine bivalves: a deposit feeder Tellina deltoidalis and a filter feeder Anadara trapezia. The bivalves were exposed in the laboratory to individual metal spiked sediments: Cadmium 10 and 50 Ag/g; lead 100 and 300 Ag/g; selenium 5 and 20 Ag/g dry mass, T. deltoidalis for 28 days A. trapezia for 56 days. A. trapezia was also exposed in the laboratory for 56 days to sediments from three sites along a metal contamination gradient of cadmium, lead, selenium, zinc and copper from Lake Macquarie, NSW. Metal total tissue dose was measured in whole tissue of T. deltoidalis over 28 days and in gill, hepatopancreas and haemolymph tissues in A. trapezia over 56 days. Subcellular metal distribution, biologically active metal (BAM) versus biologically detoxified metal (BDM) was measured in whole tissues of T. deltoidalis at day 28 and in gill and hepatopancreas tissues of A. trapezia at day 56. Biomarkers of response measured in spiked sediment exposed, at day 28 T. deltoidalis and day 56 A. trapezia were: total antioxidant capacity (TAOC); glutathione peroxidase enzyme activity (GPx); total glutathione concentration (GSH+2GSSG); reduced to oxidised glutathione ratio (GSH:GSSG); lipid peroxidation (TBARS); lysosomal membrane stability and micronuclei frequency. Response indices measured in A. trapezia exposed to Lake Macquarie sediments were: TAOC, TBARS, lysosomal membrane stability, micronucleus frequency and condition index. Native A. trapezia and sediments were also collected from Lake Macquarie and measured for sediment and tissue metal concentrations, TAOC, TBARS, lysosomal membrane stability and condition index to allow comparison between chronically exposed and previously unexposed organisms. T. deltoidalis and A. trapezia accumulated metal over time in all sediment metal exposures with most reaching equilibrium tissue metal concentrations by the end of the exposure period. T. deltoidalis generally reached equilibrium with the exposure concentration for cadmium and lead but had significantly higher selenium tissue concentrations than the sediment metal at the 5 Ag/g exposure. A. trapezia tissue lead was below the sediment concentration for all exposures including in the native organisms. A high proportion of accumulated lead and copper in A. trapezia was in the haemolymph, probably associated with haemoglobin which has a high affinity for these metals`. A. trapezia cadmium tissue concentrations were higher than the sediment metal in the 10 Ag/g spiked sediment exposure and between half and one eighth the sediment concentrations in other treatments, including in native organisms. A. trapezia including the native organisms exposed to selenium sediment concentrations at or below 5 Ag/g in the Lake Macquarie mixed metal sediments accumulated significantly higher than ambient selenium tissue concentrations while those exposed to 5 and 20 Ag/g selenium spiked sediments had lower than ambient selenium tissue concentrations. The majority of accumulated cadmium, selenium and zinc was associated with the gill/mantle tissues. A. trapezia hepatopancreas contributed significant selenium concentrations in the later part of the exposure period indicating and increased contribution from dietary derived selenium. Native A. trapezia had significantly lower tissue concentrations of selenium, copper and zinc, higher cadmium and approximately equal lead compared to organisms exposed to similar sediment metal concentrations in the laboratory. T. deltoidalis detoxified around 50 % of accumulated cadmium and 70 % of lead while A. trapezia detoxified around 70 % of accumulated cadmium and 60 % of lead. Much of T. deltoidalis BDM cadmium was converted to metal rich granules (MRG), while A. trapezia had most in the metallothionein like proteins (MTLP) fraction. The conversion of lead to MRG was 75 % of the total BDM in T. deltoidalis while A. trapezia had an even distribution between MRG and MTLP. The majority of recovered selenium in both species was associated with the nuclei+cellular debris fraction, probably as protein bound selenium associated with plasma and selenium bound directly to cell walls. Selenium exposed organisms had increased BDM selenium burdens which were associated with both MRG and MTLP fractions, indicating selenium detoxification. The majority of BAM cadmium, lead and selenium was associated with the mitochondrial fraction in both species with increases in cadmium burden in this organelle of T. deltoidalis up to 7200 fold; lead 154 fold; and selenium 7 fold and in A. trapezia up to 84 fold cadmium, 50 fold lead and selenium 7 fold in exposed organisms compared to controls. The subcellular distribution of all three metals in T. deltoidalis and A. trapezia indicates active metal detoxification processes which at these exposure concentrations were unable to prevent significant metal burdens from accumulating in sensitive organelles. A contamination gradient of zinc, lead, copper, cadmium and selenium was established in Lake Macquarie sediments which emanated from the same source. A. trapezia accumulated all metals in each sediment exposure. Accumulation and tissue distribution patterns of cadmium, lead and selenium were similar to those of the single metal spiked sediment exposures. Cadmium and lead BAM burdens increased at all exposures while selenium, zinc and copper did not. T. deltoidalis and A. trapezia in the spiked sediment metal exposures generally had reduced GPx activity. This resulted in an increase in total glutathione concentrations which the reduced GSH:GSSG ratios indicated was due to a build up of oxidised glutathione. T. deltoidalis and A. trapezia had reduced TAOC in all laboratory sediment metal exposures which corresponded with increased TBARS concentrations, lysosomal destabilisation and micronucleus frequency. A. trapezia exposed to Lake Macquarie metal contaminated sediments also had a reduction in physiological condition, indicated by the reduced condition index, after 56 days at the higher metal exposures. Clear exposure - dose - response relationships have been demonstrated for T. deltoidalis and A. trapezia exposed to single cadmium, lead and selenium spiked sediments and for A. trapezia exposed to Lake Macquarie mixed metal contaminated sediments. Detoxification of all metals was evident in both T. deltoidalis and A. trapezia but detoxification capacity was exceeded for cadmium, lead and selenium leading to significant accumulation of these metals in sensitive organelles. The significant relationships, in the laboratory exposed T. deltoidalis and A. trapezia, between TAOC reduction with increased TBARS, lysosomal destabilisation and micronuclei frequency and between increased TBARS with lysosomal destabilisation and micronuclei frequency indicates that increased tissue metal dose and BAM burdens caused significant impairment of the antioxidant reduction capacity which resulted in a cascade of effects from lipid peroxidation to cellular perturbation and genotoxic damage. The reduction in physiological condition in the organisms with the highest tissue metal doses suggests the response goes beyond subcellular perturbations to whole organism and potentially population effects. Chronically metal exposed native Lake Macquarie A. trapezia did not show a clear metal exposure - dose - response relationship. Accumulation of the essential elements zinc, copper and selenium appeared to be regulated while cadmium and lead were not. TAOC was significantly reduced and TBARS significantly increased compared to reference organisms but lysosomal stability and condition were not significantly affected. The suite of interrelated biomarkers used offers a weight of evidence approach for demonstrating adverse effects of metal tissue accumulation in T. deltoidalis and A. trapezia

In this thesis, the implementation and results of studies into the effect of pH on the kinetics of various iron transformations in natural waters are described. Specific studies include i) the oxidation of Fe(II) in the absence and presence of both model and natural organic ligands, ii) the complexation of Fe(III) by model organic compounds, and iii) the precipitation of Fe(III) through the use of both laboratory investigations of iron species and kinetic modeling. In the absence of organic ligands, oxidation of nanomolar concentrations of Fe(II) over the pH range 6.0 -- 8.0 is predominantly controlled by the reaction of Fe(II) with oxygen and with superoxide while the disproportionation of superoxide appears to be negligible. Oxidation of Fe(II) by hydrogen peroxide, back reduction of Fe(III) by superoxide and precipitation of Fe(III) have been shown to exert some influences at various stages of the oxidation at different pH and initial Fe(II) concentrations. In the presence of organic ligands, different effects on the Fe(II) oxidation kinetics is shown with different organic ligands, their initial concentrations and with varying pH. A detailed kinetic model is developed and shown to adequately describe the kinetics of Fe(II) oxidation in the absence and presence of various ligands over a range of concentrations and pH. The applicability of the previous oxidation models to describe the experimental data is assessed. Rate constants for formation of Fe(III) by a range of model organic compounds over the pH range 6.0 -- 9.5 are determined. Variation of rate constants for Fe(III) complexation by desferrioxamine B and ethylenediaminetetraacetate with varying pH is explained by an outer-sphere complexation model. The significant variation in rate constants of Fe(III) complexation by salicylate, 5-sulfosalicylate, citrate and 3,4-dihydroxylbenzoate with varying pH is possibly due to the presence of different complexes at different pH. The results of this study demonstrate that organic ligands from different sources may influence the speciation of iron in vastly different ways. The kinetics of Fe(III) precipitation are investigated in bicarbonate solutions over the pH range 6.0 -- 9.5. The rate of precipitation varies by nearly two orders of magnitude with a maximum rate constant at a pH of around 8.0. The results of the study support the existence of the dissolved neutral species Fe(OH)30 and suggests that it is the dominant precursor in Fe(III) polymerization and subsequent precipitation at circumneutral pH. Variation in the precipitation rate constant over the pH range considered is consistent with a mechanism in which the kinetics of iron precipitation are controlled by rates of water exchange in dissolved iron hydrolysis species.

Implementation of physically distributed catchment modelling systems reshapes the fundamental philosophy of traditional calibration approaches by supporting the concept of equifinality. Arising from the concept of equifinality, alternative behavioural parameter sets within a given catchment modelling system structure can generate similar levels of simulation performance. This concept is motivated by the existence of a variety of uncertainties associated with a complex catchment modelling system, such as an imperfect model structure, measurement errors in both the input data and the recorded flows, and unknown, or poorly defined, interactions among parameters. However, the difficulty of searching for behavioural parameter sets increases as the complexity of the catchment modelling systems increases. This study undertook an investigation on the feasibility and robustness of a real-value coding genetic algorithm (GA) for calibrating the physically distributed Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) using the Centennial Park catchment in Sydney as a case study. It was found that a real-value coding GA was a robust technique suitable to search for behavioural parameter sets and, in particular, it was found that this approach was capable of identifying the promising range of values for spatially variable parameters. Moreover, the widespread use of physically distributed catchment modelling systems has highlighted the importance of estimating the uncertainty in the parameter values and in the predictions obtained from a complex catchment modelling system as well as in catchment averaged, or lumped, systems that have been the focus of many previous studies. Bayesian inference has been shown to be a tool suitable for parameter uncertainty estimation in catchment modelling. However, the application of Bayesian inference faces difficulties in complex high-dimensional systems where there is little if any a priori knowledge about the proposal distribution of the parameters. In this study, a real-value coding GA was used to undertake uncertainty estimation on spatially variable control parameters with little a priori knowledge about the proposal distribution of parameters. After 50,000 evaluations, the marginal posterior distributions of spatially variable parameters which are associated with behavioural parameter sets were identified. The performance of a behavioural parameter set under a range of hydrological conditions was evaluated. Updating of the marginal distributions of these control parameters was implemented by adding additional calibration data. Interactions among the spatially variable control parameters were investigated also. Results based on the Pearson Correlation method indicate no clear relationship between any two control parameters. However, a methodology to detect relationships among groups of parameters was developed. Application of this methodology suggests that the simulation performance of SWMM was influenced by combinations of parameter values rather than values of the individual parameters. Finally, the predictive uncertainty associated with the existence of behavioural parameter sets was considered. A number of alternative strategies were used to evaluate the predictive performance. Consideration of the results suggests that use of a small number of parameter sets randomly selected from the large number of behavioural parameter sets was the best strategy in terms of efficiently obtaining predictive performance.

Corrigenda attached to back end paper. / Bibliography: p. 526-559. / xxx, 559 p. : ill. ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / This research analyses the suitability of back-propagation artifical neural networks (ANNs) for modelling multivariate water quality time series. The ANNs are successfully applied to two case studies, the long-term forcasting of salinity and the modelling of blue-green algae, in the River Murray, Australia. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 1996?

Acid Sulphate Soils (ASS) often cause acidic pollution in canal water, which negatively impacts on water quality, biodiversity and the livelihood of farmers and fishermen, especially the landless poor. The problem is particularly acute in the coastal zones, where people already suffer from the consequences of salinity intrusion. Reducing acidic pollution is important for improving agricultural and aqua-cultural production and also the living conditions of people living in coastal zones with ASS. This study aims at developing an analytical tool that can simulate the propagation of acidic pollution and that would allow planers and managers to develop water management options and other resource management measures to reduce acidic pollution in the canal network of a coastal zone. / This study utilizes a systems approach, with a series of field, laboratory studies, in combination with statistical and GIS-based analyses and simulation modelling. Field and laboratory studies were carried out during 2001 - 2006 in Ca Mau peninsula, Mekong Delta, Vietnam, to fill in knowledge gaps on the source and amount of acidic loads from soil to the water surroundings, their interaction with saline water and their propagation in the canal network. Knowledge generated from this study was used in developing and validating a model to simulate the propagation of acidity in the tidal canal network with brackish water. / Measured data showed that the acidic pollution in the canal network varies seasonally. The pH of the canal water was lowest (3 – 4.5) at the beginning of the rainy season and highest (7 – 7.5) at the end of the rainy season and during the dry season. The reduced dredging activities in year 2005 and 2006 may explain why the acidic pollution decreased in 2005 – 2006 compared with 2001 –2004. The most serious acidic pollution occurs when the two following conditions are present simultaneously: (i) The existence of newly dredged canals (and hence the deposition of the excavated spoils on the canal embankment) in areas with ASS (especially with a severe ASS); and (ii) little or a lack of water exchange from tidal flows. Field experiments showed that ASS embankments within 2-3 years after dredging represent a high acidity hazard because they can release into the canal a total acidity, mainly from runoff and seepage water, of up to 2.7 mol H+day-1 per meter length of canal embankment. Functional relationships were established allowing quantification of the daily acid load transferred from fields and canal embankments to the canal network. / A laboratory titration experiment showed that saline water could buffer the effects of acidic pollution in the canal water. A new ACIDITY module was developed and was coupled to an existing hydraulics and salinity model (the Vietnam River Systems And Plains - VRSAP). The model was calibrated with measured data from 2003 and validated with data from 2005. The Model is the first of its kind able to simulate the temporal and spatial dynamics of changes of pH (as an indicator of acidity) at a regional scale, together with salinity and water flow characteristics in a tidal canal network with brackish water. The Model can be used to investigate the effects of different scenarios of water and other resource management options on the extent of acidic pollution in a coastal area. Analysis of simulation runs for various scenarios indicate that opening the two main sluices along the East Sea at high tide in one day every week in May and June for saline water intake, combined with widening the canals that connect these sluices to the West Sea can eliminate the acidity problem in the study area. Large scale dredging of canals of ASS in fresh water zone should be avoided as it can create severe acidic pollution of the canal water.

The quest to discover simple, sensitive and global bioindicators of nutrient enrichment and ecological health continues. The present study is the first to address this quest in Hervey Bay by investigating links between key physico-chemical water quality parameters and two diatom forms. Free floating in the water column as phytoplankton, and attached to seagrass leaves and artificial substrates as microalgal epiphytes, diatoms are assessed for their abundance and diversity along an environmental gradient. Relationships between Secchi depth (Zsd), light attenuation coefficient (Kz) and minimum seagrass compensation depth (Zc) are established for the recovery, growth and survival of aquatic plants following disturbance, with equations derived specifically for this region to allow conversions from Zsd to Kz. These relationships allow predictions to be made and provide a management tool to meet water quality targets and combat elevated nutrient and sediment loads that result from anthropogenic activity and affect all marine life, from microalgae to marine mammals. Environmental links, identified as drivers of change to biodiversity, focus research effort and provide predictive management tools. Consequently, catchment and coastal activities such as dredging, construction and canal development, with the potential to increase nutrient and sediment loads, can be managed and scheduled at times least likely to adversely impact near shore ecosystems and therefore improve the balance between growth and sustainability. Seasonal and zone differences were significant for many of the water quality parameters monitored in Hervey Bay during 1994. Water clarity measures consistently showed significant differences between near and offshore zones (Secchi depth; P<0.01, turbidity; P<0.05 and TSS; P<0.01) as well as oxygen (P<0.01), soluble reactive phosphate (SRP, P<0.05), oxides of nitrogen (NOx, P<0.01), chlorophyll a (Chl a, P<0.01) and pH (P<0.01). Some default trigger values for water quality targets listed by ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000) for concentrations of key indicators, a threshold for risk of adverse biological effects, were exceeded in dry and flood periods during the 1993 to 1995 survey. The community structure of phytoplankton and seagrass epiphytes were examined by monitoring changes to and 35 seagrass epiphyte species coincident with changes in some key water quality parameters along a water quality gradient. Chl a, Secchi depth (Zsd), soluble reactive phosphate (SRP) and pH were found to be the best subset of water quality parameters to maximise the rank correlation with phytoplankton communities whereas NOx and temperature maximised the rank correlation with the Halophila ovalis seagrass epiphyte communities. These parameters statistically link key water quality parameters to changes in phytoplankton and seagrass epiphyte density and assemblage structure and are supported as significant drivers of change in biodiversity research. Evidence for nitrogen limitation was found in the post flood surveys for phytoplankton and the growth and assemblage structure for seagrass systems and their epiphytes. Seasonal and zone differences in phytoplankton assemblage structure were most apparent with some site influence detected. Cylindrotheca closterium dominated the phytoplankton assemblage structure at the near shore zone while Thalassionema nitzschioides and Chaetoceros sp. differentiated the river from the Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP) creek site. Rhizolsolenia and Guinardia sp. were found in significantly higher concentrations at offshore sites (P < 0.01) and Thalassionema nitzschioides (P < 0.01), Thalassiosira sp. (P < 0.01) and Pseudonitzschia sp. (P < 0.05) were found in significantly higher abundance in the near shore zone A Trichodesmium bloom was examined and post flood changes to the phytoplankton assemblage structure associated with increased nutrient loads, reduced water clarity (Secchi depth, TSS and turbidity) and changes to pH and salinity were assessed. The results of analyses of variance provided support to multivariate statistical analyses to identify phytoplankton as a useful and sensitive bioindicator of environmental change. Post flood phytoplankton cell density increased and species diversity rose from 10 to 38 species at the Mary River mouth however, the changes to cell density and assemblage structure were not reflected in Chl a concentrations. The Mary River mouth experienced growth of mainly small phytoplankton species (< 20 µm) while Pulgul Creek, a source of WWTP effluent, experienced a disproportional increase in the larger phytoplankton species (>20µm). The increase in phytoplankton cell density at offshore sites occurred for both large and small species. Phytoplankton species dominance changed at each site during the postflood period. C. closterium remained the dominant species but increased from 34 to 648 cells/mL at Pulgul Creek however, C. similis, the second most dominant species was replaced by Pseudonitszchia sp., whose cell density rose from 2.0 to 320 cells/mL. A recent study also found that Cylindrotheca closterium, Skeletonema costatum, and Cyclotella choctawhatcheeana had strong positive relationships with coastal nutrients and suggested these species be used as potential reliable indicators of eutrophication (Toming and Jaanus, 2007). Some Pseudonitszchia sp. and dinoflagellate species have previously been noted as toxic and Chaetoceros sp. are associated with gill damage and fish kills. Rhizosolenia sp. and the Guinardia species G. flaccida and G. striatula, were indicators for the offshore relatively pristine sites, which may conversely, determine these species as indicators of environmental health in this waterway. Specificity of epiphyte attachment to particular seagrass species were detected and microalgal epiphyte assemblages on Halophila ovalis were identified as useful bioindicators of environmental gradients as this seagrass species is located at intertidal, shallow and deep water sites for a substantial part of the year. H. ovalis also recorded the highest average annual epiphyte loads (3873 ± 1882 cells/mm2) with the diatoms Diatoma vulgare and Cocconeis scutellum representing 19.6% and 17.2% of the total epiphyte cover. Highest cell density was recorded in autumn, followed by summer and winter: spring recorded the lowest epiphyte cover. Micro-algal epiphyte load was assessed as dry weight (g/m2), Chl a (µg/L) and cell density (cells/mm2) on artificial seagrass deployed along a water quality gradient. Equations were derived to describe percentage light transmission as a function of each measure of epiphyte load which allows transformation of data from one unit of expression to another and hence, allow comparison of past, current and future studies. Water column light attenuation was evaluated along a water quality gradient and linked to Secchi depths (Zsd) to derive equations that describe this relationship where for Hervey Bay, when Zsd < 4.26m, Kz = -1.2 ln Zsd + 1.74 and when Zsd ≥ 4.26m, Kz=1.37/Zsd. Species succession, diversity and seagrass growth were monitored for the first time during a recovery phase and limits for the seagrass compensation depth (Zc), were established on a seasonal basis for five seagrass species at four locations within intertidal, shallow and deep water zones in Hervey Bay and the Great Sandy Straits. Conceptual models for each site were constructed to describe habitat characteristics and include nutrient concentrations for SRP, NOx and ammonia (NH4+), Chl a, phytoplankton density, epiphyte density and light requirements measured as light attenuation, total suspended sediment, turbidity and Secchi depth at each location. The study provides a descriptive model for light attenuation and establishes (1) an annual and seasonal baseline water quality data set that characterises the waterways of Hervey Bay and the Great Sandy Straits (2) identification of phytoplankton species in Hervey Bay and their response to post flood changes in water quality (3) phytoplankton density and diversity along an environmental gradient with links established to Chl a, Secchi depth, SRP and pH (4) seagrass epiphyte assemblage structure along an environmental gradient with links established to NOx and temperature (5) conversion factors for epiphyte load expressed as dry weight, Chl a and cell density (6) functions to convert Secchi depth to light attenuation coeffiecients (Kz) (7) seagrass species succession at intertidal, shallow and deep water sites during a recovery growth phase in Hervey Bay (8) seagrass compensation depths (Zc) for five seagrass species at four locations and (9) habitat characterisation for seagrass recovery in Hervey Bay. Identification catalogues for phytoplankton and seagrass epiphytes were prepared with light and electron micrographs to assist future identification studies of diatoms in this region and for other similar biogeographical areas. The management of water quality to reach specific targets requires the capacity to predict seagrass compensation depth (Zc) as a function of water quality. Seasonal and annual light attenuation measurements are derived as a function of water quality at intertidal, shallow and deep water habitats during the colonisation of Zostera Capricornii, Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis, Halophila spinulosa and Halophila decipiens.

Pesticide runoff from agricultural applications poses a potential threat to water quality in the world heritage listed Great Barrier Reef (GBR) and sensitive monitoring tools are needed to facilitate effective monitoring of these pollutants. This thesis has worked to advance passive sampling tools for monitoring trace organic pollutants and their potential impacts on the GBR. The suitability of several available passive sampling tools for detecting trace concentrations of target pesticide analytes was investigated in a laboratory calibration chamber before experiments were conducted to further understanding of the response of Chemcatcher passive samplers in environmental conditions likely to be experienced in the GBR. Passive samplers were deployed in a survey of pesticides in the GBR environment and extracts were applied in bioassays to investigate their application for predicting mixture toxicity to GBR biota. When employed and interpreted appropriately, passive sampling tools have been shown to provide for sensitive and reproducible detection of organic pollutants in relatively pristine environments. While considerable research has been conducted into the performance and theory of analyte uptake by a range of passive sampling devices, several key knowledge gaps existed and were addressed in this study. The applicability of the performance reference compound (PRC) concept as an in situ calibration method for passive samplers using Empore Disk sampling phases (Chemcatchers) to monitor polar compounds was investigated. This experiment showed that while uptake of pesticides was linear and reproducible, PRC loss was not linear, meaning that the dissipation rates of these PRCs cannot be used to estimate the effect of field exposure conditions on uptake rates. An alternative in situ calibration technique using PRC loaded polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) disks deployed alongside the Chemcatchers as a surrogate calibration phase has been tested and shows promise for future applications. Pesticide concentrations in waters flowing to the GBR have been shown to undergo dramatic fluctuations over short time periods and the potential for these conditions to limit the integrative period of sampling was investigated by simulating a changing concentration event in a calibration chamber. The ability for samplers to predict average concentrations was dependant on the deployment configuration (with or without membrane) used and the period of deployment relative to the changing concentration event. Passive samplers were employed in a survey of pesticides in GBR waters during a wet and dry season at river mouths, two nearshore regions and an offshore region. The nearshore marine environment was shown to be contaminated with pesticides in both the dry and wet seasons (average water concentrations of 1.3-3.8 ng L-1 and 2.2-6.4 ng L-1, respectively), while no pesticides were detected further offshore. Continuous monitoring of two rivers over 13 months showed waters flowing to the GBR were contaminated with herbicides (diuron, atrazine, hexazinone) year round, with highest average concentrations present during summer months (350 ng L-1). The use of passive samplers has enabled identification of insecticides in GBR waters which have not been reported in the literature previously. Extracts from passive samplers deployed at three sites in the GBR were applied to bioassays targeting integral life stages or functions of coral reef biota: scleractinian coral larvae, sea urchin larvae, a marine diatom and marine bacteria. The results demonstrate the utility of pairing passive sampling with bioassays and reveal that mixtures of organic pollutants in the GBR have the potential to cause detrimental effects to coral reef biota. This research outlines an approach that reduces one of the levels of simplification of risk assessment of pollutants to ecosystems by incorporating mixtures of chemicals present in the environment. The use of passive sampler extracts in toxicity testing allows pollutant mixtures to be assessed at a range of enrichment factors and, with the inclusion of biota from the ecosystem of concern, improves the relevance of results for predicting real world effects. The findings of this thesis are intended to be used to improve the application of passive sampling tools for routine monitoring to provide managers with understanding of the pesticides present, the potential effects of those pollutant mixtures and feedback on the efficacy of implemented land management practices in halting and reversing the impacts of pesticides on the GBR.

Doctor of Philosophy(PhD) / In eastern Australia, Vertosols are widely utilised for the production of irrigated cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) due to their inherent fertility and large water–holding capacity. However, irrigated agriculture in eastern Australia is faced with a decline in the availability of good quality irrigation water sources i.e. waters with low electrolyte concentrations and small Na+ contributions. Consequently, alternative water resources that contain larger contributions of Na+ are becoming increasingly relevant as potential irrigation sources. It is known that the application of Na+ rich waters as irrigation has the potential to increase the Na+ content of the soil, and that this will affect the structural condition of Vertosols. However, the extent to which these poor quality water resources will influence the structural characteristics of different Vertosols is unknown. In addition to this knowledge gap, there is currently no suitable predictor of dispersive behaviour for this soil type, particularly where Vertosols are irrigated with different water quality solutions. The research conducted in this study aimed to characterise the impact of different increments of water quality on the structural stability of different Vertosols. Once this was concluded, the study looked to assess the impact of irrigation water quality on the structural stability, structural form and soil water retention properties of intact soil columns. Knowledge of the structural stability of the soils investigated was then used to derive a model describing the impact of water quality on the structural stability of different cotton producing soils. To achieve the aims nine different soil profiles were sampled from the Bourke, lower Gwydir, Hillston and lower Namoi cotton–producing regions. Eight of these soils are Grey and Black Vertosols with clay phyllosilicate suites dominated to different extents by 2:1 expanding clays, and the ninth soil is an illitic Red Vertosol containing small contributions of 2:1 expanding clays. The soils investigated have ESPs that range between 1 and 10, ECs of 0.1 to 1.2 dS m-1 and CECeff values that are largest for those soils that contain more 2:1 expanding clays. This study shows that the clay phyllosilicate suite of different Vertosols is the primary determinant of structural stability, structural form and soil water retention properties. For example, the Gwydir and Namoi soils contain more 2:1 expanding lattice phyllosilicate clays, have the largest CECeff values of all nine soils and are the most dispersive after all applied immersion treatments. The Bourke and Hillston soils contain less 2:1 expanding lattice clay, have smaller CECeff values and are generally more stable. Irrigation of structurally–intact soils with solutions of larger SARw resulted in larger exchangeable Na+ contents for each soil (and larger ESPs) and smaller contributions of exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+. For each soil, larger ESPs are reflected by decreased stability, but generally the soils dominated by 2:1 expansive clays are much less stable than the soils containing smaller contributions of these clay mineral types. Irrigating the structurally–intact Vertosols dominated by 2:1 expansive clays generally resulted in structural form attributes that do not indicate any impact of the applied water treatments, but the Vertosols with less of these mineral types tend to have less desirable structural form attributes after irrigation with solutions of larger Na+ content. Similarly, where the water retention properties of two soils were assessed, the illitic Red Vertosol has less structural pore space after treatment using the large SARw solutions, while the other soil (a Black Vertosol dominated by 2:1 expansive clays) does not show any differences between water retention properties that can be linked to irrigation water quality. These results were clarified for the water retention properties by the assessment of pore–solid space relations, which show both these soils to contain less solid space after irrigation with clean water or solutions of large SARw. This is attributed to increased swelling of clays in the presence of larger Na+ contributions, but both soils have different structural arrangements as shown by the water retention properties and structural form assessment. The red illitic Vertosol shows signs of structural collapse, while the black Vertosol maintains its structural arrangement. Finally, a model describing the structural stability of different Vertosols was developed from the stability assessment of soils, both in different water quality treatments and after the irrigation of structurally–intact columns. The model presented uses a surface response function to describe the impact of increased ECw and SARw of irrigation solutions on soil stability after immersion according to specific soil physico–chemical attributes. In this model increased exchangeable Na+, SAR and a larger CECeff (and consequently, an increased proportion of 2:1 swelling clays) are associated with increases in clay dispersion, while a smaller Ca2+:Mg2+ ratio, EC and less total clay are associated with decreases in clay dispersion.

Thesis (doctoral)--TU Bergakademie Freiberg, 2006. / "International Mine Water Association." Includes bibliographical references (p. [337]-420) and index.