South Africa's water resources are, in global terms, scarce and extremely limited (DWAF, 2004). Groundwater is a valuable source of potable water in South Africa. It was found that most of the health facilities in the Limpopo Province depend on groundwater as sole source of potable water. Groundwater quality is to a great extent influenced by the dominant land use in the vicinity of an aquifer. It is therefore important to carefully manage possible pollution sources of anthropogenic origin. This may be seen as pro–active water quality management that may result in significant saving on water treatment. This aim of this study is to obtain a regional view of the water quality situation at clinics and other health facilities in the Limpopo Province. It was found that the general water quality at health facilities in the Province is questionable. It is of concern to note that 56% of health facilities use water that is unacceptable for human consumption. Water quality may be managed by introducing appropriate treatment options to treat the water to ideal water quality standards. This dissertation explores some treatment options used at health facilities in the Province. The efficiency of these treatment systems is also investigated. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Geography and Environmental Studies))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

The presence of heterotrophic plate count (HPC) bacteria in drinking water distribution systems is usually not considered harmful to the general consumer. However, precautions must be taken regarding the immunocompromised. All water supply authorities in South Africa are lawfully required to provide consumers with high-quality drinking water that complies with South African-and international standards. This study mainly focused on the isolation, identification and characterization of HPC and other bacteria from biofilm-and bulk water samples from two sampling points located within the Potchefstroom drinking water distribution system. Based on five main objectives set out in this study, results indicated that the bulk water at the J.S. van der Merwe building was of ideal quality fit for lifetime consumption. Application of enrichment-and selective media allowed for the isolation of 12 different bacterial morphotypes. These were identified by way of biochemical-and molecular methods as Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Brevundimonas spp., Clostridiaceae, Corynebacterium renale, Flavobacteriaceae, Kytococcus sedentarius, Leuconostoc lactic, Lysinibacillus sphaericus, Pseudomonas spp., Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus capitis. The greatest diversity of bacteria was detected early autumn 2008, while the lowest diversity occurred during mid-winter 2007. Bacillus cereus, Kytococcus sedentarius and Staphylococcus capitis displayed potential pathogenic properties on blood agar. Kytococcus sedentarius could be classified as potentially the most pathogenic among the isolates. All isolates displayed multiple-resistant patterns towards tested antibiotics. Corynebacterium renale and Staphylococcus aureus were least resistant bacterial species and Lysinibacillus sphaericus the most resistant. All isolates were susceptible to ciprofloxacin (CIP) and streptomycin (S), but most were resistant to erythromycin (E). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) allowed for detailed examination of Brevundimonas spp., Pseudomonas spp. and Staphylococcus spp. The capability of Brevundimonas spp. to produce slime and store nutrients within inclusion bodies, suggests the ability of this bacterium to form biofilm and persist in the drinking water for prolonged periods. Despite the inhibitory or toxic effect of copper against bacterial growth, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed the presence of biofilms as well as diatoms on red-copper coupons. Biofilm activity was also observed on reverse-osmosis (RO) filters. Since corrosion was evident on red-copper coupons, it is recommended that prospective studies also look into the significance of microbial induced corrosion (MIC) within the Potchefstroom drinking water distribution system. Other prospects include determining minimum inhibitory concentrations of isolates against antibiotics and the application of culture independent methods such as SSCP and DGGE to investigate biofilm development. The use of diatoms as an index of the drinking water quality is also suggested. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Environmental Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Surface water is used for drinking by many people around the world. E. coli is the most frequently used bacterial indicator used for assessing water quality. The survival, sources, and concentrations of E. coli were examined through a series of experiments that investigated the survival of beef cattle E. coli on land and in water, and used bacterial source tracking (BST) to determine the sources of fecal contamination diurnally and annually in multiple watersheds in British Columbia. A fecal pat experiment was conducted to examine the survival of E. coli under 4 levels of solar exposure. E. coli survived longer with increasing shade. Age of fecal pats, as well as exposure to solar radiation negatively influenced the survival of E. coli. The survival of E. coli in stream water was examined in filtered and unfiltered stream water at 3 different temperatures (6, 20 and 26 ºC). There was no significant difference in the survival of E. coli in filtered versus non-filtered stream water. Lower water temperatures (6 ºC) increased the survival of E. coli. The addition of manure to the water substantially increased the nutrient concentrations and organics. BST is a rapidly growing area of research and technology development and many methods are being developed and tested. The choice of method used for BST depends on: question(s) to be answered, scale of identification needed, available expertise, cost of analysis, turnaround time, and access to facilities. The spatial, diurnal, and annual sources and concentrations of E. coli were investigated in several watersheds in British Columbia. Fecal coliforms and E. coli concentrations varied throughout the day, as well as by site, month and year. Ribotyping identified many different sources of E. coli within the watersheds. The majority of E. coli isolates classified were from wildlife sources in each watershed even though they had different land-use.

Watershed land use has a pervasive influence on a variety of properties within aquatic ecosystems including productivity and community composition. Long-term data, which are rare or absent for many lakes are crucial for taking or making management decisions. Paleolimnological approaches can provide long-term data. In this study, emphasis was placed on exploring how the traditional proxies can be applied in alternative ways as well as to evaluate novel tools to reconstruct water quality with contrasting watershed land uses. I examined Sooke Lake Reservoir (SOL) and Shawnigan Lake (SHL), located on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Canada. SOL is an impounded lake that is used as a drinking water reservoir, and has a watershed with restricted public access and development. SHL has a similar limnological regime, but the surrounding watershed has been developed extensively for residential uses. In recent years elevated primary production was observed in SHL as compared to SOL. Results also suggest increased variability for most phytoplankton groups in SHL during post-disturbance periods compared to SOL. I also investigated how the history of local disturbance in a watershed can influence the regional coherence of ecosystem properties in lakes, by measuring sedimentary d13C, d15N, C:N and %BSiO2 (SOL and SHL). Data suggest that local disturbances can influence the %BSiO2 (proxy for lake productivity) and C:N ratio of lake sediments, but is less Iikely to alter the regional coherence of %C, %N and d13C between lakes. Fossil pigment records along with other geochemical indicators (d13c, d15N, C:N and %BSiO2) in lake sediments can provide information on changes in aquatic productivity, temporal coherence and variability due to either natural or anthropogenic disturbances and thus can be used to guide and manage lake water quality. The relationship between phytoplankton community composition (as inferred from diatoms and fossil pigments) and trophic status was different with contrasting watershed land uses. My results suggest that the hump-shaped (or unimodal) relationship between diatom species richness and production may be limited to high productive systems with maximum richness and diversity in intermediate states. In addition, fossil pigment records as proxies for algal functional groups reveal that in a mid to high productive system with intense watershed scale disturbances, community composition of algal functional groups declined favoring certain diatoms. These findings have broader implications for aquatic ecosystem management. Given that continuing pressure on land and subsequent land-use changes is a threat to freshwater resources, it is critical to trace watershed disturbances and subsequent alterations in accumulation of organic matter and impacts on aquatic ecosystems. An alternative approach to reconstruct organic matter accumulation using stable isotopes from lake sediments was explored. Stable isotope signatures from defined organic matter sources from the catchment and surface water of Shawnigan Lake (SHL) and Elk Lake (ELL), were compared with sedimentary proxy records. Results from this study reveal that terrestrial inputs and catchment soil coinciding with the watershed disturbance history probably contributed to the recent trophic enrichment in SELL. In contrast, cultural eutrophication in ELL was partially the result of input from catchment soil (agricultural activities) with significant input from lake primary production as well. The organic matter source detection technique that I have developed in this study can be applied to limit the effects of land use change in the vicinity. Bacterial production in the water column is positively correlated with algal primary production and therefore, may be responsive to watershed land-use changes. Bacteria release extracellular enzymes to hydrolyze high molecular weight organic compounds and are sensitive to the amount and type of organic matter in the aquatic environment. Aminopeptidase activity (a protease enzyme) in sediment core was strongly related to the watershed land-use history and subsequent changes in organic matter in the aquatic environment. The enzymatic activity changed with the degree of watershed disturbances, and therefore, suggests that enzymatic activity in lake sediments could be a proxy to infer historical productivity.

Communities in the vicinity of the Mico River, located in Chontales, Nicaragua, suffer from periodic dry season water shortages. The Mico River is impacted by artisanal and industrial mining, cattle ranching, effluent from local dairies and tanneries, and poor waste management practices in the watershed. Available water quality data consists of short term assessment studies and monitoring data for a mine operating in the headwaters, but to date this information has not been collated and interpreted as a whole. Communities in the vicinity of the Mico River have expressed an interest in having this data reviewed to verify information they have received from government and industry with regards to impacts from the La Libertad Mine. A gap analysis of existing water quality data in the headwaters of the Mico River is presented, with interpretation of current data and identification of further data needs. Recommendations are provided for future water quality monitoring in the region. The study area was defined as the Mico River watershed upstream of the town of Santo Tomas. A total of 14 studies were identified with information about the Mico River in this area. Individual study reliability was assessed, and study data were compiled to assess conditions in comparison to water quality guidelines and any spatial or temporal trends. Both water chemistry and bioassessment studies were assessed. The major gaps in existing information are: insufficient baseline/ reference information, insufficient information on impacts from contaminants other than metals, insufficient coverage of streams not directly impacted by the La Libertad Mine, poor quality and reliability of data, and poor coordination/ continuity between studies done to date. Cyanide concentrations were found to be below drinking water criteria at the majority of sample locations. Metals concentrations were elevated throughout the study area but it cannot be determined if this is due to natural background levels or anthropogenic sources. Water quality conditions with regards to other parameters (e.g., dissolved oxygen, temperature, pesticides and bacteria) and bioassessment data cannot be assessed due insufficient data quality and quantity. Existing monitoring in the region should be expanded to include reference locations. It is recommended that a benthic invertebrate bioassessment program designed for tropical mountain streams be implemented to supplement existing monitoring and identify areas where stream function is impaired, as bioassessment is cheaper and requires less equipment and logistical coordination than water chemistry monitoring programs. Whatever future work is done, care must be taken that study design and implementation is of a higher quality than that done to date, so that results are comparable and reliable. Coordination and cooperation between bodies involved in monitoring is essential for efficient use of scarce resources. / Graduate

Automatic river quality monitoring (ARQM) is potentially an important tool in water quality management for the National Rivers Authority (NRA) and similar organisations worldwide. The information produced by ARQM systems must be used in the most effective way and fully integrated with the manual monitoring effort. The status and development of ARQM systems in the freshwater and estuarine River Thames catchment are discussed and a practical appraisal of the design, operation and maintenance requirements given. Data capture, verification and presentation methods are developed and the use of ARQM data for real time management and subsequent analysis is advocated. Examples of data from the freshwater ARQM system are given which emphasise the variability of freshwater quality and the need for a comprehensive understanding of the behaviour of rivers before management decisions are made. The use of ARQM data for assessing the compliance of rivers with River Quality Objectives is examined. With respect to the tidal Thames, data processing methods to correct for the tidal movement of the waterbody are developed. ARQM data are used to highlight the principal factors affecting the water quality of the tidal Thames. The importance of the use of ARQM information in the effective management of the tidal Thames is discussed and operational examples demonstrate how it may be utilised as a basis for management decisions. The application of ARQM to the sub-tropical environment of the River Ganges, India, is investigated. An ARQM system has been designed and prototypes are operational. Extensive site surveys were carried out and the water quality status of the Ganges is discussed. Recommendations for the improvement and future development of ARQM systems are made. The use of ARQM information and its potential for improving the management of rivers is discussed.

Water quality is of great importance for ecosystems and society. This thesis characterized and modeled the variation in several key constituents of Swedish surface waters, with particular consideration given to intra-annual variability and sensitivity to climate change. Cyanobacterial data from 29 lakes and basins as well as total organic carbon (TOC) from 215 watercourses were used. Extensive data on catchment characteristics, morphometry, discharge, temperature and other water chemistry data were also analyzed. Models characterizing the seasonality in cyanobacterial concentration and relative cyanobacterial abundance were developed with common lake variables. Concentrations of TOC, iron and absorbance were simulated using discharge, seasonality and long-term trend terms in the Fluxmaster modeling system. Spatial patterns in these model terms were investigated, and the sensitivity of cyanobacteria and TOC to future climate was explored. Nutrients were the major control on cyanobacterial concentration seasonality, while temperature was more important for relative cyanobacterial abundance. No cyanobacterial blooms occurred below a total phosphorus threshold of 20 µg l-1. Discharge and seasonality explained much of the intra-annual variability in TOC, but catchment characteristics could only explain a limited amount of the spatial patterns in the sensitivity to these influences. North of Limes Norrlandicus the discharge term had a larger impact on the TOC concentration in large catchments than in small catchments, while south of Limes Norrlandicus the seasonality had a larger impact in small catchments than in larger catchments. According to the climate change scenarios, both TOC and cyanobacterial concentrations will be higher in the future. The cyanobacterial dominance will start earlier and persist longer. The spring TOC concentration peak will come earlier. The changes in TOC loads are more uncertain due to predicted declines in discharge. Parsimonious statistical regression models could explain observed variability in cyanobacteria and TOC. For predictions, these models assume that future aquatic ecosystems will exhibit the same sensitivity to major drivers as in the past. If this proves not to be the case, the modeling can serve as a sentinel for changing catchment function as indicated by degradation in model performance when calibrations on older data are used to model later observations.

River water is used for a range of purposes, for example irrigation, laundry, hygiene, mining of sand, as drinking water and for disposal of wastes and wastewater. These anthropogenic activities, along with agriculture and the local climate and geology will have effects on the water quality, and by extension the people living in the area. This study intends to evaluate the water quality of Likangala River, which is a perennial river in southern Malawi, during hot dry season linking it to the activities present in the direct vicinity of the urban segment of the river. A small land use survey was carried out, and eight points for water sampling chosen for analysis of a set of physio-chemical water quality parameters. Also an estimate of the water discharge of the time was made. It was found that most parameters were within the guidelines for drinking water set up by WHO (2011) and Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS, 2008), although turbidity, manganese, iron, chromium and lead showed elevated levels. Some, but not all, parameters showed a trend with low values upstream the city and higher values downstream (except pH with a inverse trend), and almost all parameters were significantly higher in the effluents from the Zomba Sewage Works, and also directly afterwards. / Flodvatten används för en rad olika ändamål, exempelvis bevattning, tvätt, hygien, utvinning av sand, som dricksvatten och för avyttrande av avfall och avloppsvatten. Dessa mänskliga verksamheter, tillsammans med effekter av jordbruk samt det lokala klimatet och geologin kommer att påverka vattenkvaliteten, och i förlängningen de människor som bor i området. Denna studie avser att utvärdera vattenkvaliteten i Likangala, som är en flod i södra Malawi, under heta torrperioden och koppla denna till de verksamheter som finns i dess direkta närhet längs den urbana sträckningen av floden. En liten kartläggning av markanvändning genomfördes, och åtta platser för vattenprovtagning valdes ut för analys av ett antal fysio-kemiska vattenkvalitets- parametrar. Också en uppskattning av vattenföring gjordes. Det visade sig att de flesta parametrar var inom riktlinjerna för dricksvatten som inrättats av WHO (2011) och Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS, 2008), även om turbiditet, mangan, järn, krom och bly visade förhöjda halter. Vissa, men inte alla, parametrar visade en trend med låga värden uppströms staden och högre värden nedströms (förutom pH med en inverterad trend), och nästan alla parametrar var betydligt högre i spillvattnet från Zomba vattenreningsverk, och även direkt efteråt.

Model-based reservoir management systems are indispensable for determining an optimal water resources management in river basins with multipurpose reservoirs. A recently developed management system will be described, using evolutionary algorithms to optimize both event-based and long-term operation of a reservoir system concerning multiple objectives with different units of measurement (Money, Dimensions, Ecology). The result are sets of so-called Pareto optimal solutions which represent the most useful compromises and can serve as a transparent information base for decision-making. In order to improve the ecological performance of multipurpose reservoirs, a dynamic operating scheme is implemented, which ensures that reservoir releases correspond to natural flow variability as far as possible. In addition water quality problems during the flood discharge and the release from selected layers of the water body will be discussed in brief.

The research presented in this thesis describes the development and application of a portable, high-resolution instrument, specifically designed for the at-site monitoring of algae and cyanobacteria in freshwaters. The instrument incorporates a miniature charge-coupled device (CCD) based spectrometer and a low power combined deutelium and tungsten light source, enabling the absorbance to be measured between 200 - 850 nm at a resolution of 1.3 nm. A transmission dip probe with removable tips of 5, 10 and 40 mm pathlengths forms the sampling device. A specifically developed control program allows easy operation of the instrument. A linear response from 0.0 - 1.2 AU and a combined signal to noise ratio of 576: 1 for the instrument components resulting in a high baseline stability of 1.0 mAU drift over five hundred measurements being observed. The instrument provides in-vivo absorbance characteristics with high resolution across the visible spectrum. Up to twelve specific spectral features were commonly identified in the absorbance spectra of algae and cyanobacteria between 400 - 750 nm. Individual spectral features were linked to specific pigments, some of which were found to be taxonomically distinct. Fourth derivative analysis was proven to provide further enhancement of subtle spectral features. The instrument has a linear range for chlorophyll a up to 1000 !lg rl and a detection limit of 8 )lg rl using the 40 mm pathlength probe. Physiological adaptation to light and nutrient conditions were shown to have a significant effect on the in-vivo absorbance spectrum, therefore providing potential information on physiological status and health of a natural sample. Spectral analysis using principal component analysis (PCA) with classification based on the soft independent modelling of class analogy (SIMCA) method was used to classify nine species from three taxonomic classes, including four cyanobacteria (Microcystis aeruginosa, Anabaena variabilis, Aphanizornenon flos-aquae, Synechnococcus sp.), four chlorophyceae (Chlorella vulgaris, Scenedesmus acuminatus, Spirogyra mirabilis, Staurastrurn chaetoceros) and a single bacillariophyceae (Asterionella Formosa). Classification using the SIMCA method proved to be highly reliable and robust. Moreover, the addition of noise was found to have very little effect on the classification. Under laboratory conditions all nine species were correctly classified using 'unknown' spectra. At-site classification of natural samples and laboratory simulations have shown the robustness and reliability of the developed portable instrument. In combination with the data analysis techniques, the instrument is well suited to the proactive at-site assessment of algal and cyanobacterial blooms in eutrophic freshwater environments.