The effective management of non-point source nutrient pollution continues to prove elusive. Though the scientific literature is unequivocal that all anthropogenic land uses contribute to non-point source (NPS) pollution, variable levels of contribution over time and across location and complex relationships between cost and effect make finding technologically effective management solutions difficult. In addition, these solutions are implemented in a world of scarce resources, diverse and often competing concerns and values, and intense public scrutiny. Clearly, making the best possible decision about how to manage NPS pollution under these conditions is not simple. My overarching goal was to develop and test several practical approaches that provide insight into the implications of management decisions and the trade-offs facing water quality managers using the challenges of restoring Lake Champlain as a test case. I first demonstrate a simple spreadsheet-based method for (1) identifying the areas of greatest potential for further phosphorus reductions, (2) estimating the potential scale of those reductions, and (3) identifying the severe tradeoffs that exist between cost and effectiveness at high levels of management. Results of this method suggest that better and more extensive management of developed impervious surfaces and annual cropland and hayland represent the greatest potential for phosphorus reductions. Farmstead management, combined sewer overflows, and wastewater treatment present little opportunity under the current regulatory environment. Results also suggest that due to order-of-magnitude differences in cost-effectiveness between management practices for developed and agricultural lands, substantial tradeoffs exist between cost-efficiency and equity in the distribution of responsibility for management. Second, in an effort to quantify the variability of NPS contributions over time and space, I developed and applied a Bayesian hierarchical modeling approach to incorporate annual hydrologic variability and uncertainty about land use areas into estimates of land-use specific phosphorus loading rates and watershed-scale residual loading. The model was able to replicate both average load and the variability around that average with an acceptable degree of precision. The results of this approach suggest that for some watersheds, unmanageable sources of phosphorus are dominant. Third, I applied a Bayes network to predict the effects of alternative management scenarios on phosphorus loads. Using evolutionary optimization and a multiple-criteria decision analysis, I explored the tradeoffs between cost, effectiveness, and distributional equity in the burden of management. Results of this study indicate that the probability that phosphorus loads will comply with regulatory targets is, in some watersheds, small under any management scenario. More interestingly, it also appears that there are large differences between watersheds in the ability of management actions to raise those probabilities, and the significant and non-linear tradeoffs between cost, effectiveness, and equity will make decision-making - and achieving restoration targets - difficult. Together, these approaches provide a foundation for a fuller and more completely informed decision-making process that incorporates uncertainty and identifies key trade-offs for the State of Vermont as it implements a new management plan for Lake Champlain.

Lake Champlain is a major economic driver for Vermont's tourism economy, as well as a primary source of drinking water for many of the state's residents but nutrient pollution represents a potential threat to ecosystem health and economic well-being. From December 2011 to December 2012 a field trial of an EAF steel slag filter was assessed for its feasibility in treating wastewater originating from Swan Valley Cheese (SVC), in Swanton, VT. The study focuses on a period of the filter's operation from May 4 to October 10, 2012. The plant generates approximately 20,000 gallons per day of high P concentration wash water which is treated in an open aerated lagoon. The filter treated effluent from this lagoon. The major goals of this research were to conduct a field trial of an EAF steel slag filter to evaluate its effect on total P (TP), dissolved reactive P (DRP), and total suspended solids (TSS). Research was also conducted on pH reduction for filter effluent. Results indicate that the filter removed 95.83% of TP, 96.65% of DRP, and 52.25% of TSS. Average pH effluent was measured at 10.12 ±1.55. Additionally, a field study was conducted on sampling two unlined bioretention systems treating urban stormwater runoff. Methods used are presented and methodological considerations for future studies are presented to guide researchers in more effective and efficient methods for obtaining influent and effluent samples from bioretention systems that are not necessarily designed for sampling.

Nutrient inputs into the environment greatly impact urban ecosystems. Appropriate management strategies are needed to limit eutrophication of surface water bodies and contamination of groundwater. In many existing urban environments, retrofits or complete upgrades are needed for stormwater and/or wastewater infrastructure to manage nutrients. However, sustainable urban nutrient management requires comprehensive baseline data that is often not available. A Framework for Urban Nutrient (FUN) Management for Geographic Information Systems (GIS) was developed to specifically address those areas with limited data access. Using spatial analysis in GIS, it links water quality, land use, and socio-demographics, thereby reducing data collection and field-based surveying efforts. It also presents preliminary results in a visually accessible format, potentially improving how data is shared and discussed amongst diverse stakeholders. This framework was applied to two case studies, one in Orange County Florida and one in Placencia, Belize. A stormwater pond index (SPI) was developed to evaluate 961 residential wet ponds in Orange County, Florida where data was available for land use and socio-demographic parameters, but limited for water quality. The SPI consisted of three categories (recreation, aesthetics, education) with a total of 13 indicators and provided a way to score the cultural and ecosystem services of 41 ponds based on available data. Using only three indicators (presence of a fence, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) < 4 mg/l, and water depth < 3 ft), 371 out of 961 stormwater ponds were assessed. Additional criteria based on socio-demographic information (distance to a school, population density, median household income under $50,000, percentage of population below the poverty line, and distance to parks) identified seven wet ponds as optimum for potential intervention to benefit residents and urban nutrient management purposes. For the second case study, a water quality analysis and impact assessment was performed for the Placencia peninsula and lagoon in Belize. This study had access to water quality data, but limited land use data and very limited socio-demographic data. Since May 2014, water quality samples have been taken from 56 locations and analyzed monthly. For this study, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Nitrate (NO3--N), Ammonia (NH3), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and 5-Day Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Escherichia coli (E. coli), and Enterococci were selected to assess spatial and temporal variation of water quality in the groundwater on the peninsula as well as the surface water in lagoon, estuaries and along the coast. A spline interpolation of DO, Nitrate, BOD5, and COD for June 2016 indicated the concentration distribution of those parameters and areas of special concern. A spatial analysis was conducted that showed that Nitrate and Enterococci exceeded the effluent limits of Belize very frequently in the complete study area while the other parameters contributed to the identification of key areas of concern. As a high variability of concentrations over time was observed, a temporal analysis was conducted identifying a link between the water quality data and two temporal impact factors, rainfall and tourism. The two case studies showed the broad and flexible application of the FUN management for GIS and the great advantages the use of GIS offers to reduce costs and resources use.

Master of Landscape Architecture / Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Timothy Keane / Stormwater management within the urban context has evolved over time. This evolution has been categorized by five paradigm shifts (Novotny, Ahern, & Brown, 2010). The current paradigm of stormwater management utilizes hard conveyance and treatment infrastructure designed mainly to provide protection for people from typical 1-5 year frequency storms. Consequently, this infrastructure is sometimes unable to deal with larger sized, 50 to 100 year events which can have serious consequences. Manhattan, Kansas has suffered multiple flooding episodes of severe proportion in the past decade. The dilemma of flooding within the Wildcat Creek watershed is a direct example of the current paradigm of stormwater management. This once ecologically healthy corridor is fed by conveyance systems that do not address the hydrologic needs of the watershed; decreasing the possibility for infiltration and groundwater recharge. Vegetated stormwater management systems must be implemented to help increase infiltration and address flooding problems within the Wildcat Creek watershed. The aesthetic performance of designed landscapes has a tremendous effect on the appreciation and care given to them by the surrounding population (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, and Fry, 2007). Landscape architecture has the ability to aid in the visual appeal and ecological design of vegetated stormwater management systems (SMS) by utilizing existing frameworks that address aesthetic reaction of the outdoor environment (Kaplan, Kaplan, and Ryan, 1998). This document evaluates design alternatives of vegetated SMS in order to discern a set of variables that inform the relationship between each systems aesthetic and amenity performance and their ecosystem and hydrological performance. Identified variables are combined into a set of guidelines for achieving different levels, or patterns of aesthetic performance found within the Understanding and Exploration Framework et al. (Kaplan, Kaplan, and Ryan, 1998) and amenity performance listed by Echols and Pennypacker’s Amenity Goals et al. (2007) through vegetated SMS. These design guidelines illustrate how aesthetic theory can be applied through ecological systems in order to increase the coherence, legibility, complexity, and mystery (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989) of existing sites. Creating spaces where ecological and socio-cultural activities can coexist addresses the local characteristics of aesthetics with the universal dilemma of stormwater management.

The relationship between Man and Nature can be divided into three ‘eras.’ The first era refers to a time when Man was dominated by Nature, governed by her fluctuating seasons and at the mercy of her erratic moods. Man’s advancement brought into being the Machine, which enabled Man to move into a second era. This era brought about a brief state of equilibrium between Nature and Man, before Man advanced even further and faster into a third era in which Man and Machine dominated Nature. Man’s appropriation of Nature’s resources is his most intimate experience of the Natural world. However, in this third phase of development, Man has negated the ‘natural’ source of Nature’s resources and has thus disconnected himself from her. As a result of this disconnection, the third era is characterised by an imbalance which is leading towards the possibility of Man tipping off the scales entirely. This thesis explores the possibility of a fourth era in which Man and Nature once again achieve an equilibrium of mutually beneficial symbiosis. A fourth era would be the setting of a mend in the severed Man-Nature relationship. A ‘reconnection’ could be achieved through a renewed understanding of the systems, both natural and technological, that supply Man with Nature’s resources. The ‘Machine’ that is the Vaal Dam Wall and its surrounds was chosen as a locus for the theoretical application of a form of inhabited resource infrastructure that takes steps towards a fused Man-Nature entity. The dam wall is a significant piece of existing infrastructure that plays a major role in the capture, storage, and distribution of water to people in Gauteng, South Africa’s economic powerhouse. A legible, multi-use intervention sensitively placed on this site could reconnect the water-users to the natural water resource that is so vital to their livelihoods. The intervention is in the form of a visitor centre which incorporates water purification and hydroelectric power generation as well as a management facility for the Department of Water Affairs, the entity with jurisdiction over the Vaal water system and dam wall site. The Vaal Dam Visitor Centre could provide much-needed infrastructure to the chosen site in its un-realised capacity as a locus for tourism, education, research and management. In doing so, the Centre could be the ‘Machine’ that reconnects Man to Nature through responsible use and understanding of her resources.

Esta Tese analisa os condicionantes, os limites e as possibilidades postos à efetivação de uma gestão efetivamente integrada em bacias hidrográficas de dupla dominialidade, contextualizando tais questões ao modelo de gestão em implantação no Brasil a partir do início da década de 90. O trabalho está focado na gestão das águas da bacia do Rio Paraíba do Sul, analisando o processo histórico de construção do sistema e seus impactos nas estratégias de convivência entre os dois diferentes organismos atuantes no trecho paulista da bacia: o Comitê da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Paraíba do Sul (CBH-PS), responsável especificamente pela gestão no trecho paulista da bacia; e o Comitê para a Integração da Bacia do Rio Paraíba do Sul (CEIVAP), com jurisdição sobre a totalidade da bacia. O marco conceitual deste estudo apóia-se, principalmente, nas contribuições de autores situados no campo reconhecido como neoinstitucionalista. Promoveu-se um minucioso resgate do processo de implantação das diferentes “instituições políticas" relacionadas à gestão das águas da bacia, contextualizando assim o “processo político" de convivência entre os dois modelos de gestão retratados, abrindo-se dessa maneira perspectivas mais amplas para a análise dos conteúdos e dos impactos decorrentes dessas políticas. Para o adequado desenvolvimento deste estudo foi realizado o acompanhamento – tanto documental, quanto presencial - das atividades de ambos os Comitês. A pesquisa está também apoiada em entrevistas com um amplo conjunto de informantes centrais. O relato do histórico da gestão no trecho analisado foi organizado em cinco períodos, retratando movimentos de conflito e cooperação entre os atores. Apesar dos diversos desafios ainda a serem enfrentados rumo à integração, os dados coletados apontam para um gradual avanço na maturidade do sistema de gestão de recursos hídricos, com perspectivas positivas rumo à implantação de ações coordenadas e cooperativas na bacia. Esse movimento também explicita a dimensão temporal como um importante fator a ser considerado no processo de mudança institucional. / This study examines the possibilities and the restraints of the estabilishent an effective Integrated Water Resource Management System in the Paraiba do Sul River Basin in the context of the new Brasilian water management policy started in the 1990s. The research focused on the institutional an jurisdictional complexity of this management, particularly in the São Paulo State section. This study analyzes those institutional frameworks, their articulations and overlaps, and the outcomes on sustainable water use. The research was based on documental analysis and interviews. The management history report of the analyzed section was organized into 5 moments, depicting points of contention and cooperation among the ones involved. The gathered data point to a gradual improvement in the evolution of Integrated Water Resource Management System with positive perspectives towards the implementation of coordenated and cooperative actions in the Basin.

Mounting recognition of the socio-political context of the management of water resources has rendered the application of technocratic approaches in isolation insufficient in addressing future management challenges with participatory approaches increasingly promoted in response. Against this background, new regulatory mechanisms in the water sector in England and Wales promise an increased role for the views of customers in water utility planning and decision- making. Yet, existing scholarship on the institutionalisation of participative approaches in water utility planning and decision-making in England and Wales is sparse. This thesis contributes to an improved understanding of factors that hold potential to impact institutionalisation of participative approaches in this context by focusing on three specific aspects of effectiveness; motivational clarity, the influence of participative mechanism design, and the use and influence of water utility customer contributions in water sector planning and decision-making. This has been achieved through the deployment of participatory research in collaboration with the sponsoring organisation (a water utility operating in England and Wales) utilising group discussion and semi-structured interviews with domestic water customers and water utility practitioner respectively. Findings demonstrate that preference elicitation vehicles embedded within participatory mechanisms hold the potential to influence participants expressed preferences thus representing a key design consideration where multi- mechanism approaches are deployed in planning and decision-making contexts. Furthermore, useful design considerations for multi-attribute presentation in participatory mechanisms are presented. Findings also identify a dominance of instrumental and legalistic practitioner motivations for the use of participative approaches in water utility decision-making. Foremost, it identified the significance of the regulator in driving water utility practices for the management and influence of customer contributions in planning and decision- making, and more fundamentally illustrates the significant barrier posed by a legacy of technocratic practices for the institutionalisation of participatory approaches in water utilities.

China, the world's most populous country, has been experiencing a severe water crisis. This has manifested itself through water shortages, water pollution and natural water disasters, and has been exacerbated by the rapid social and economic development that has taken place in the last two decades. To deal with these problems, an integrated water resources management programme, within which an effective and enforceable water rights system can play a key role, should emerge as soon as possible under the principle of sustainable development. However, there are many problems under the water rights system in the current Chinese water law, involving the property right of water resources, the human right to water, and the environmental right to water. ... this dissertation recommends a well structured water rights system under which the economic, social and environmental values of water resources co-exist equitably in harmony.

This thesis improves the understanding of adaptive water governance in the policy process, and draws lessons of policy relevance for flood management. Scholars using the concept of adaptive water governance posit that factors influencing the governing activities of social actors are of critical importance to improve society’s capacity to better respond to the on-going water crisis. They developed a set of principles for adaptive water governance, in particular the need for polycentric forms of governance, where power over decision-making is not held by a single social actor but distributed across society, and the use of participatory processes, promoting collective action and enhancing collective reflection. Empirical evidence on the validity of these principles remains sparse, in particular in public policy processes.The thesis uses established research on the policy process to better conceptualise the governance of complex water problems. It examines empirically the emergence of integrated, ecosystem-based flood management in Scotland, a typical Western democracy though characterised by an interesting history of institutional design and flood policy dynamics. First, factors influencing the formulation and integration of the approach in national environmental policies are identified, drawing on an inductive, thematic and historical analysis of documents and interviews with key policy actors. Second, factors influencing the implementation of the approach, in particular the role of policy instruments and public participation, are then identified in the Eddleston and Bowmont-Glen catchments. A combination of documentary analysis, interviews with local actors, and Q Methodology are used. The thesis supports the general principle that polycentric governance can improve the adaptability of governance systems. Horizontally, multiple actors with decision-making power may encourage greater reflexivity in the policy process. Having multiple policy regimes may also foster innovative interventions. Vertically, significant autonomy between governance levels may help better adapt policies to the appropriate scale of intervention. The devolution of legislative powers from the British to the Scottish level is presented as an example. At a more local level, providing greater autonomy to implementers can enhance their capacity to enforce policies. The thesis also provides evidence for critics of polycentric governance. In particular, polycentric governance may result in a lack of coherence between policy regimes, heterogeneous implementation, and potentially status-quo, rather than change. The thesis supports the idea that a strong participatory approach may help overcome the limitations of polycentric governance. Findings indicate that critical factors for success are the institutional context in which it occurs, its inclusive nature, adequate resourcing, time available, and the willingness of participants to reach compromise and learn. Individual entrepreneurship is clearly fundamental to increase the adaptability of governance systems.Overall, the thesis shows that attention to the public policy process is an important analytical approach to the study of adaptive governance. Past research on the policy process provides constructive theories to explore principles of adaptive governance in an empirical context. Main policy recommendations, for Scotland and beyond, include, amongst others, a call for strong governance arrangements to accompany the work of multi-actor groups for policy integration, the use of instrument mixes across policy regimes to influence land managers, and greater support for non-governmental catchment organisations to foster local collaboration and improve policy implementation.

This thesis is a comparative law study of the national water laws of four jurisdictions - Scotland, England, South Africa and Queensland Australia. The purpose of the research was to develop an analytical framework for reform of national water law. The management of the water resource is a pressing global concern and law is one of the disciplines working to achieve this. As part of the global policy agenda for water, many states are reforming their national laws; many other actors are also engaged in these processes. However there is no framework for this area of law reform, no structure against which reform proposals can be assessed. This thesis attempts to draw out such a framework, by a primarily positivist and pragmatist analysis.