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The deterioration of water quality due to human-driven alternations has an adverse effect on the environment. More than 50% of surveyed surface water bodies in the United States (US) are classified as impaired waters as per the Clean Water Act. The pollutants affecting the water quality in the US are classified as point and non-point sources. Pollutant mitigation strategies such as the selective implementation of best management practices (BMPs) based on the severity of the pollution could improve water quality by reducing the amounts of pollutants. Quantifying the efficiency of a specific management practice can be difficult for large watersheds. Complex hydrologic models are used to assess water quality and quantity at watershed scales. This study used a Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) that can simulate a longer time series for hydrologic and water quality assessments in the Yazoo River Watershed (YRW). This research aims to estimate streamflow, sediment, and nutrient load reductions by implementing various BMPs in the watershed. BMPs such as vegetative filter strips (VFS), riparian buffers, and cover crops were applied in this study. Results from these scenarios indicated that the combination of VFS and riparian buffers at the watershed scale had the highest reduction in sediment and nutrient loads. Correspondingly, a comparative analysis of BMP implementation at the field and watershed scale showed the variability in the reduction of streamflow, sediment, and nutrient loads. The results indicated that combining VFS and CC at the field scale watershed had a greater nutrient reduction than at the watershed scale. Likewise, this study investigated the soil-specific sediment load assessments for predominant soils in the YRW, which resulted in soil types of Alligator, Sharkey, and Memphis soils being highly erodible from the agricultural-dominant region. This study also included the effect of historical land use and land-cover (LULC) change on water quality. The analysis revealed that there was a significant decrease in pastureland and a simultaneous increase in forest and wetlands, which showed a decreasing trend in hydrologic and water quality outputs. Results from this study could be beneficial in decision-making for prescribing appropriate conservation practices

This research conducted a GIS analysis of twenty-eight sub-watersheds in Massachusetts and considered five factors which the literature suggested influenced base flow. The literature suggested a positive relation between precipitation, forest cover and base flow and a negative relationship between impervious surfaces, soil drainage class, slope and base flow. A multiple regression analysis of the sub-watershed information confirmed the literature for two factors (soil drainage class and slope) and questioned it on three factors (impervious surfaces, precipitation, and forest cover). The resulting predictive equation indicated that imperviousness and precipitation were the most significant factors affecting base flow. The first derivative of the predictive equation indicated that the interaction effects between these factors had a substantial impact on the base flow values. A number of land use impacts were also considered in this research. Natural land use features such as open land, wetland, forest cover, agricultural, and recreation uses were found to promote the infiltration and increase base flow. These uses promote base flow because their surfaces are more pervious than unnatural surfaces such as high density/multi-family residential, industrial and commercial areas which are mostly covered by impervious surfaces reducing base flow. The research also used a case study of two Massachusetts sub-watersheds to consider the effectiveness of structural stormwater Best Management Practices for promoting base flow. Two sub-watersheds were considered: the Neponset where stormwater BMPs had been implemented and Quinsigamond that had not implemented them. The case study results suggested that structural stormwater BMPs were effective in increasing base flow.

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The precipitation data of the El Alto, Tambillo and Comanche stations are homogenous and consistent. The meteorological data from Irpa Chico, Collana and Viacha are consistent, but heterogeneous. The monthly precipitation in Viacha in December, January, March and April are better examples of a normal distribution in comparison to the months of October, November and February. The average annual precipitation in Viacha, in a thirty-four year time period, is 559 mm. Some 76% of this precipitation occurs in November to March. The minimum precipitation in Viacha, with an 80% probability of absence for the vegetative period, from October to April is 269mm. January is the month with the most precipitation (75 mm). The estimated potential of evaporation-transpiration with the Penmen-Monteith method is 1,168 mm a year. October constitutes the month with the greatest value of ETP (116mm). The maximum volume of food storage in the Calacalani Lagoon is 137,000 m3, with annual losses of 48,218 m3. 82% of these losses are due to evaporation and 18% due to infiltration. The usable water volume, taking into account the conservation of 30% of the total volume in order to maintain the aquatic fauna and flora, is 47,740 m3. With some exceptions, the quality of the water is suitable for livestock consumption and with an estimated irrigation capacity of 7-11 hectares per year. The Jacha Jahuira River- Pallina transports an average volume of 38.5x106 m3 annually. This presents serious restrictions for water use in agricultural irrigation and human consumption. The use of the River's water for agricultural purposes has been conditioned for special handling operations, which can reach an irrigational surface of 5,199-8,665 hectares/year. The ground water level may vary from 3,867-3,843 m over that of the ocean level. This presents a fluctuation of 1.2 m in the deep valley receptors of the Letanias hill country and 0.1 m in the community presented an average flow of 0.13 l/s, which represents a volume of 4,100 m3/year. The artesian or subterranean water represents an interesting potential for its quality as well as its availability of 788,000 m3/year of volume. With 12 hours of daily pumping of this water, some 53-88 hectares/year are suitable for irrigation. This is in spite of the fact that the lack of infrastructure has provoked the abandonment of deeply excavated wells, estimating an annual lose of 145,00 m3. Artesian water has no restriction in quality, for animal and human consumption or for irrigation purposes. Some ground water wells have been restricted for human use, due to bacterial contamination. The Choquenaira Community is located in the middle valley of the Jacha Jahuira-Pallina. In the high valley the reduction of vegetation coverage is being observed, that when combined with seasonal rains, provokes water erosion and the transportation of sediment through drainage; Estimating an average transportation of 104 TM of sediments in suspension, especially during the rainy seasons (December-March). In the lower valley severe biological contamination (for human consumption) has been detected. This is due to the discharge of service water from the Viacha City sewer system and the Laja population; and so the sediment accumulation, increasing the risk of overflow and flooding. Extreme events, such as flooding that exceed 50 million m3 of annual drainage, have happened four times in 52 years; which is approximately every 13 years. There is an annual 76% probability that a major event will not occur. The micro-region of the Choquenaria covers a total area of 2,126 hectares. Some 12% (262 hectares) are covered with pastures in a humid environment and temporarily or permanently flooded areas (bofedales, and fertile plains); 19% (401 hectares) are covered steeps, shrubs, and rocky outcrops with strong inclines; 69% (1,463 hectares) correspond to dry land cultivations, pastures, and or bushes that lack distinction. The highest quality springs are used for human consumption, which is estimated to be 10 liters/inhabitant/day, representing an overall community consumption of 594 m3/year (148 inhabitants). This level of consumption is low in comparison to that of the Bolivian, 30-50 l/habitant/day, which is due to the difficulty in accessing the water source. With an average cattle possession in a family being five bovines and 40 ovine, the average consumption is from 450 l/possession/day. This represents an annual consumption of 10,374 m3 used for livestock water in the Choquenaira Community. The surface that undergoes irrigation in the winter does not exceed 600 m2, which is a surface that needs 440 m3/year. The requirement or unitary demand for a cultivation system, consisting of barley (57%), potato (28.6%), and alfalfa (14.4%) in the Choquenaira Community is about 4,443 m3/hectares/year, assuming an irrigation efficiency of 100% and 7,405 m3/hectares/year with a 60% efficiency using a surface irrigation system. The inhabitants of the community use an operational strategy of national resources (ground, water, cultivations, etc.) on the basis of availability and incidence of climatic resources, with the use of local ecological indicators to predict the climate. The commoners seek the reduction of agricultural risk, through specialization in hydric cultivation (dry farming) crops, the spatial operations (epochs), water conservation (water gathering) and the diversification of fountains/springs. There are oftentimes-distinct gender roles in the community. Agriculture is considered a productive activity, in which men play the dominant role. Whereas the women play a fundamental role in obtaining water, especially that which is used in human and animal consumption. The overall offering of the local hydraulic system, composed of the contribution of the Jacha Jahuira River, Calacalani Lagoon, the ground water, and artesian wells, is 39.3 million meters cubed per year. The actual demand of the community, that includes human and animal consumption as well as the irrigation in winter pastures, reaches 11,381m3/year. The potential demand, that includes both human and animal consumption, irrigation in winter pastures and the supplementary irrigation of dry farming, reaches 3.2 million meters cubed per year. The local hydraulic system offers volumes of water, sufficient enough to meet the community's actual and potential demand. However, its contamination and difficulty to access has caused the inhabitants to develop spatial and temporary strategies in order to access the water. The commoners consider the developments of these hydric resources, especially that of human consumption, as a short and long term necessity.

Global sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies have a demonstrable effect on terrestrial climate dynamics throughout the continental U.S. SST variations have been correlated with greenness (vegetation densities) and precipitation via ocean-atmospheric interactions known as climate teleconnections. Prior research has demonstrated that teleconnections can be used for climate prediction across a wide region at sub-continental scales. Yet these studies tend to have large uncertainties in estimates by utilizing simple linear analyses to examine chaotic teleconnection relationships. Still, non-stationary signals exist, making teleconnection identification difficult at the local scale. Part 1 of this research establishes short-term (10-year), linear and non-stationary teleconnection signals between SST at the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans and terrestrial responses of greenness and precipitation along multiple pristine sites in the northeastern U.S., including (1) White Mountain National Forest - Pemigewasset Wilderness, (2) Green Mountain National Forest - Lye Brook Wilderness and (3) Adirondack State Park - Siamese Ponds Wilderness. Each site was selected to avoid anthropogenic influences that may otherwise mask climate teleconnection signals. Lagged pixel-wise linear teleconnection patterns across anomalous datasets found significant correlation regions between SST and the terrestrial sites. Non-stationary signals also exhibit salient co-variations at biennial and triennial frequencies between terrestrial responses and SST anomalies across oceanic regions in agreement with the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) signals. Multiple regression analysis of the combined ocean indices explained up to 50% of the greenness and 42% of the precipitation in the study sites. The identified short-term teleconnection signals improve the understanding and projection of climate change impacts at local scales, as well as harness the interannual periodicity information for future climate projections. Part 2 of this research paper builds upon the earlier short-term study by exploring a long-term (30-year) teleconnection signal investigation between SST at the North Atlantic and Pacific oceans and the precipitation within Adirondack State Park in upstate New York. Non-traditional teleconnection signals are identified using wavelet decomposition and teleconnection mapping specific to the Adirondack region. Unique SST indices are extracted and used as input variables in an artificial neural network (ANN) prediction model. The results show the importance of considering non-leading teleconnection patterns as well as the known teleconnection patterns. Additionally, the effects of the Pacific Ocean SST or the Atlantic Ocean SST on terrestrial precipitation in the study region were compared with each other to deepen the insight of sea-land interactions. Results demonstrate reasonable prediction skill at forecasting precipitation trends with a lead time of one month, with r values of 0.6. The results are compared against a statistical downscaling approach using the HadCM3 global circulation model output data and the SDSM statistical downscaling software, which demonstrate less predictive skill at forecasting precipitation within the Adirondacks.