O estudo da erodibilidade ganha importância quando se tratam de solos localizados em regiões tropicais, caracterizadas por altas pluviosidades e evaporações que dificilmente permitem ao maciço atingir um estado de saturação em campo. A erodibilidade e as propriedades hidráulicas determinam as condições de infiltração e de escoamento superficial e podem acelerar as feições erosivas através das perdas de partículas. Neste trabalho, observou-se que o grau de saturação in situ estabelece um potencial de sucção matricial (Sm) capaz de orientar o fluxo, absorção e armazenamento da água nos poros do solo. Deste modo, foi possível correlacionar as propriedades de absorção de água com as sucções mátricas de três solos (arenoso, argiloso e areno-argiloso), com comportamento erosivo e não-erosivo, ensaiados a diferentes teores de umidade inicial. Após o controle da sucção e umidade, através da panela de pressão de Richards, os solos foram submetidos ao ensaio de erodibilidade proposto por Nogami & Villibor (1979). Os índices de absorção (Iabs), de perda de massa por imersão (P) e de erodibilidade (E) determinados neste ensaio, quando correlacionados com as curvas características dos solos, mostraram a influência da sucção matricial no início do processo erosivo. Verificou-se uma tendência de aumento da perda de massa por imersão, quanto menor era o teor de umidade inicial imposta (maior sucção). Provavelmente, quando do início do evento chuvoso, o solo tende a ser mais erodível quanto mais seco estiver. Além disso, as correlações obtidas mostraram-se coerentes com o comportamento dos solos em estudo, permitindo uma estimativa da sucção (Sm) de um solo a partir de grandezas facilmente mensuráveis como o Iabs, obtido em ensaio simples e de fácil execução. / The study of erodibility gains importance when dealing with soil located in tropical regions, characterized by high precipitation and evaporation that allow hardly the massive soil to reach a state of saturation in the field. The erodibility and hydraulic properties define the infiltration conditions and the superficial flow, and they can accelerate the erosive process due to the losses of particles. In this work, we observed that the degree of saturation in situ establishes the potencial for suction matrix (Sm) can guide the flow, absorption and storage of water in soil pores. Therefore, experimentally, it was possible to correlate the properties of water absorption with the matrix suctions of three soils, with different initial moisture contents and erosive and non-erosive behaviors. After controlling the suction and moisture through the pressure Richards pressure chamber the soils were subjected to the erodibility test proposed by Nogami & Villibor (1979). The indexes of absorption (Iabs), mass loss by immersion (P) and erodibility (E) determinated in this experiment, when correlated with the characteristic curves of soils, showed the influence of matrix suction at the beginning of the erosion process. There was a trend of increased weight loss by immersion, the lower was the initial moisture content imposed (greater suction). Furthermore, the correlations obtained were consistent with the behavior of soils under study, allowing to estimate of suction (Sm) of a soil from easily measurable values such as the Iabs.

A racionalização e industrialização da construção promoveram profundas modificações no processo construtivo e nas técnicas gerenciais no Brasil. Muitas empresas construtoras, para garantir competitividade no mercado, buscaram soluções capazes de aumentar a velocidade de suas obras, tais como a redução do período de escoramento. A retirada antecipada do escoramento submete a estrutura a carregamento precoce, podendo desencadear a microfissuração do concreto. Como consequência, as deformações instantâneas e lentas tendem a aumentar e, consequentemente, manifestações patológicas podem ocorrer com maior intensidade. Objetivando simular o dano causado pela retirada antecipada do escoramento em idades iniciais, este trabalho investigou a influência do carregamento precoce por compressão axial na durabilidade de concretos distintos. O programa experimental foi executado em duas etapas. A primeira, investigou a influência da microfissuração causada por carregamento precoce na durabilidade de concretos produzidos com três tipos de cimento (CPV-ARI, CPIV RS e CPII Z) e três relações água/cimento (0,35, 0,50 e 0,70). Os carregamentos dos corpos de prova foram realizados em laboratório nas idades de 1, 3 e 7 dias. Para cada idade de carregamento foram rompidas, até o limite, duas amostras de referência e, a partir do valor médio de ruptura obtido, determinava-se os percentuais de carga (25%, 50% e 75%) que seriam aplicados nos concretos. Após o período de cura de 28 dias, as amostras foram ensaiadas à Penetração de Íons Cloreto e à Absorção Capilar de Água. A segunda etapa do programa experimental investigou a influência do prolongamento da cura na recuperação do dano causado pelo carregamento dos concretos nas primeiras idades. Foram produzidos concretos com dois tipos de cimento (CPV-ARI e CPIV) e uma relação água/cimento (0,50). Parte dos concretos receberam pré-carregamento de 75% da carga de ruptura na idade de 3 dias e parte permaneceu intacta, para servir como referência. Os ensaios mecânicos e de durabilidade (penetração de íons cloreto) foram executados ao longo do tempo (3, 7, 28 e 91 dias). Os resultados da Etapa 1 mostraram que, para todas as misturas investigadas, houve elevação da penetração de cloretos e da absorção de água com o aumento da intensidade do carregamento e da relação água/cimento dos concretos. Também foi observado a existência de um processo de microfissuração causado pela ação dos pré-carregamentos dos concretos com pouca idade. Os melhores desempenhos foram obtidos para as misturas com cimentos pozolânicos e não submetidas ao carregamento. Os resultados observados na Etapa 2 mostraram que o aumento do período de cura dos concretos refletiu positivamente nos resultados dos ensaios mecânicos e de durabilidade. Nessa etapa, também foram realizados ensaios microestruturais complementares que permitiram observar que a continuidade da cura promoveu uma recuperação parcial das microfissuras (self-healing) nos concretos. No entanto, nem todas foram fechadas. Constatou-se que as magnitudes das microfissuras remanescentes eram tal que poderiam se tornar um caminho preferencial para a entrada de íons cloreto nos concretos. Conclui-se que todos os concretos analisados apresentaram a mesma tendência de comportamento, de redução da entrada de íons cloreto com o aumento do período de cura. No entanto, o diferencial dos resultados foi notado na intensidade dos valores observados, significantemente reduzidos para os cimentos pozolânicos. / The rationalization and industrialization of the construction promoted deep changes in the constructive process and on the management techniques in Brazil. Most of the construction companies look for solutions that allow it to increase the speed of the constructions to ensure competitiveness on the market, such as the reduction on the time of structure execution, as well as the period of scores and anticipating the beginning of the masonry building. The early removal of the scores put the structure in an early loading without giving enough time to part of the cement hydration reactions happen, starting the concrete micro cracking process. Consequently, the instantaneous and slow deformations tend to increase and hence, pathologies may occur with greater intensity. This work researches the influence of early loading, by axial compression, in the durability of different types of concrete. The experimental program was implemented in two stages. The first stage investigated the influence of the micro cracking caused by pre loading on the durability of concretes produced with three different types of cement classified based on the Brazilian standards (CPV-ARI, CPIV RS and CPII Z) and three water/cement ratios (0.35, 0.50 and 0.70). The samples loading were realized in laboratory at the ages of 1, 3 and 7 days. Two reference samples were loaded until the limit, for each age of loading, and according to this average value of loading the percentage of loading to be applied on the samples in order to perform the durability tests were calculated (25%, 50% and 75%). The samples were placed in humid chamber for 28 days. After the cure period the samples were tested to Chloride ions penetration and water capillary absorption. The second stage of the experimental program investigated the influence of prolonged healing in the recovery of the damage caused by the concrete loading at early ages (microcracks). Concretes were produced with two types of cement (CPV-ARI and CPIV) and a water/cement ratio of 0,50. Part of the concrete received preload 75% of the tensile strength at age 3 days and some remained intact to serve as reference. The mechanical and durability tests were performed over time (3, 7, 28 and 91 days). The results of the first stage of the experimental program demonstrated that, for all the cements the increasing of the chloride penetration and water absorption is directly related with the increasing of the pre loading applied, to the increasing of the water/cement ratio on the mixture and the reduction of the age of the pre loading.The results obtained in Stage-1 confirmed the existence of a microcracking process caused by the action of the preload concrete at a young age. The best performances were observed for mixtures with pozzolan cement and not subjected to loading. The continued healing promoted a partial recovery of microcracks, verified by scanning electron microscopy images (SEM). However, not all were closed. It was found that the magnitude of the remaining microcracks were such that it could become a preferred path for the entry of chloride ions in concrete. All examined concrete showed the same trend behavior, reduction of the entrance of chloride ions with increasing curing period. However, the spread of results was noticed in the intensity of the observed values, significantly reduced for pozzolanic cements.

O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar a incorporação de uma fração cuja fração granulométrica é menor que 2mm do resíduo do Shredder proveniente de uma indústria siderúrgica ao processo de fabricação de blocos cerâmicos estruturais de uma fábrica de cerâmica vermelha. As variáveis analisadas foram: dimensões, propriedades de resistência à compressão, absorção de água e quanto às questões ambientais pela análise de lixiviação e solubilização segundo a NBR 10.004 (ABNT, 2004). Foi realizado processamento do resíduo do Shredder em uma fração menor que 2mm e realizada a incorporação de uma dosagem de 10% e 20% deste material no processo industrial de uma cerâmica de produção de blocos estruturais. Foram avaliadas as propriedades de qualidade e quanto às questões ambientais. Analisando os resultados constatou-se que tanto o bloco cerâmico padrão quanto aos protótipos contendo 10% e 20% de resíduo atendem os limites normativos para resistência à compressão e para absorção de água. Na análise dimensional, somente o protótipo contendo 10% de resíduo atende todos os parâmetros quanto os requisitos normativos.Pelas análises de lixiviado e solubilizado, concluiu-se que tanto o bloco cerâmico estrutural padrão quanto ao protótipo contendo 20% de resíduo são classificados como Classe II A- não inerte. É possível afirmar que a fração menor que 2mm do resíduo do Shredder pode ser utilizada junto à massa cerâmica como matéria-prima para fabricação de blocos cerâmicos estruturais. / The goal of this work is to evaluate the incorporation of a fraction smaller than 2 mm of the Shredder Residue from a steel industry into a manufacturing process of structural bricks in a red ceramic factory. Evaluate the quality of results as the compressive strength properties, water absorption and environmental issues as leaching and solubilization analysis according to NBR 10.004 (ABNT, 2004). The Shredder Residue in a fraction smaller than 2mm was incorporated in dosages of 10% and 20% with the clay in the industrial process of a ceramic which produces structural blocks. The quality properties and the environmental issues were analyzed and the results was that both brick pattern block and the prototypes containing 10% and 20% residue meet regulatory limits for compressive strength and water absorption. The analysis of leached and solubilized concluded that both the brick pattern and the prototype containing 20% of waste are classified as Class II A – non inert residue. It is possible to say that the fraction smaller than 2mm of Automotive Shredder Residue can be used with the clay as raw material for the manufacture of structural ceramic blocks.

<p>Upgradering av biogas med tekniken vattenabsorption är vanligt i Sverige. Elva biogasanläggningar med tillsammans fjorton uppgraderingsanläggningar använder sig av tekniken. Problem med igensättning av fyllkroppar i absorptionskolonnen, samt i ett fall i desorptionskolonnen är vanligt förekommande och har en negativ effekt på uppgraderingen av rågas till fordonsgas. Fem av de nio anläggningarna i denna studie har problem med mikrobiell tillväxt på fyllkropparna. Syftet med denna rapport var att identifiera den mikrobiella tillväxten och avgöra vilka faktorer som reglerar den för att kunna rådge driftsansvariga hur man motverkar tillväxt.</p><p>En enkät skickades ut och studiebesök gjordes för att samla information om anläggningarna. Fosfolipidfettsyra (PLFA)-analyser utfördes för att bestämma mikrobiell biomassa och de organismer, som kan indikeras av de PLFA som är s.k. biomarkörer.</p><p>Prover samlades in från fyra uppgraderingsanläggningar: Jönköping, Kristianstad, Linköping och Uppsala. Proverna som samlades in var till utseendet olika, allt från gult slem från Linköping till röd-brun gegga som liknade kaffe-sump från Uppsala. I proverna från Linköping och Uppsala detekterades biomarkörer för metanoxiderande bakterier (metanotrofer) av typ I. Metanotrofer finns i jord, vatten och luft i miljöer med tillgång till metan och syre. I Jönköpingsproverna detekterades biomarkörer actinomyceter som är en vanligt förekommande bakterie i avloppsreningsverkens luftningsbassänger. Den mikrobiella tillväxten som samlades in från Kristianstad räckte enbart till ett prov och därför är det resultatet ej tillförlitligt.</p><p>I samtliga prover detekterades svamp (fungi) som förmodligen etablerats efter andra organismer.</p><p>Faktorer som kan anses påverka den mikrobiella tillväxten är processvattnets kvalitet, pH och temperatur. Rent vatten (dricksvatten) innehåller mindre mängd organiskt material, samtliga anläggningar som använder sig av avloppsvatten upplever problem. Lågt pH är gynnsamt för att minska den mikrobiella tillväxten eftersom de flesta organismer trivs bäst vid neutralt pH. Låg temperatur är gynnsam eftersom lösligheten för koldioxid och divätesulfid är större vid lägre temperaturer, vilket gynnar uppgraderingen av biogas.</p> / <p>Upgrading of biogas performed using the technique absorption with water wash is common in Sweden where eleven biogas plants, comprising a total of fourteen upgrading plants use this technique. However problems with microbial growth on the pall-rings in the absorption column, and in one case in the desorption column, have negative impact on upgrading the raw gas to vehicle gas. Five of the nine biogas plants studied here have experienced problems with microbial growth. The objective of this report was to identify the microbial growth and determine possible factors regulating microbial growth in order to give advice to process management.</p><p>A questionnaire was sent out and visits were made to the upgrading plants to collect information about the plants. A phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis was performed to determine microbial biomass and community structure, for which PLFA biomarkers are one type of indicator.</p><p>Samples were analysed from four upgrading plants: Jönköping, Kristinstad, Linköping and Uppsala. The cultures collected were visually different, varying from yellow and slimy to reddish brown with the consistency of coffee grounds. In the Linköping and Uppsala samples, biomarkers for methane-oxidising bacteria (type I methanotrophs) were detected. Methanotrophs live in environments with access to methane and oxygen and are inhibited by e.g. acetylene. In the Jönköping samples biomarkers indicating the bacteria actinomycetes common in the water of aeration tanks in sewage treatment plants, were detected. In Kristianstad there was only enough culture for one sample, so no reliable result was obtained. Fungi were detected in all samples and probably established after other organisms.</p><p>Factors affecting development of microbial growth were found to be water quality, pH and temperature of the process water. Clean water (drinking water) contains less organic material than cleaned water from sewage treatment plants. All plants using water from sewage treatment plants have experienced microbial growth. Low pH is beneficial for reducing microbial growth since most organisms prefer a neutral environment.</p><p>Low temperature is beneficial for minimising microbial growth since the solubility of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide increases with decreasing temperature.</p>

<p>For produced biogas to be usable as vehicle fuel it has to be upgraded to a higher energy content. This is accomplished by elevation of the methane concentration through removal of carbon dioxide. Absorption with water wash is the most common upgrading method used in Sweden today. The upgrading technique is based on the fact that carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than methane. Upgrading plants that utilises this method have problems with microbial growth in the system. This growth eventually leads to a stop in operation due to the gradually drop in upgrading capacity.</p><p>The aim of this thesis were to evaluate the possibility to through some kind of water treatment maintain an acceptable level of growth or altogether prevent it in order to maintain an acceptable process capacity and thereby avoid the need to clean. Through collection of literature the implementation possibilities were evaluated with regard to efficiency, economic sustainability and if there would be a release of any harmful substances.</p><p>In order to prevent the microbial growth in the columns the treatment should either focus on removing microorganisms or limit the accessible nutrients. For the single pass system it is concluded that the treatment should reduce the biofilm formation and be employed in an intermittent way. Among the evaluated treatments focusing on the reduction of microorganisms the addition of peracetic acid seems to be the most promising one. For the regenerating system the treatment method could focus on either one. As for the single pass system peracetic acid could be added to reduce the amount of microorganism. To reduce the amount of organic matter an advanced oxidation process could be deployed with the advantage that it also could remove the microorganisms.</p> / <p>För att kunna använda den producerade biogasen som fordonsgas måste dess energiinnehåll höjas. Detta åstadkoms genom avskiljning av koldioxid så att metankoncentrationen ökar. Den vanligaste förekommande uppgraderingstekniken i Sveriges är absorption med vatten, som bygger på att koldioxid är mer lösligt än metan i vatten under tryck. Uppgraderingsanläggningarna har mikrobiell tillväxt på fyllkropparna i absorptionskolonnen, vilket ofrånkommligen orsakar en lägre uppgraderingskapacitet och slutligen är ett stopp i produktionen nödvändig för kunna tvätta fyllkropparna. Anläggningarna som recirkulerar processvattnet kan även ha tillväxt i kolonnen, där den lösta koldioxiden tas bort.</p><p>Syftet med detta arbete var att genom en litteraturstudie undersöka om det vore möjligt att undvika eller åtminstone hålla tillväxten under en acceptabel nivå genom någon typ av vattenrening. De olika reningsmetoderna utvärderades med avseende på möjlighet att implementeras i det befintliga uppgraderings systemet, effektivitet, möjliga utsläpp och ekonomisk hållbarhet.</p><p>För att begränsa tillväxt i kolonnerna ska vattenreningen antingen fokusera på att ta bort mikroorganismer eller begränsa tillgången på näringsämnen för bakterierna som når kolonnerna via biogasen, luften som används för att ta bort koldioxiden från vattnet, eller via vattnet. För uppgraderingsanläggningar där processvattnet bara passerar kolonnen en gång rekommenderas en reningsmetod som fokuserar på reducera bildandet av biofilmen. Av de utvärderade metoderna ter sig perättiksyra som det bästa alternativet. För system med recirkulerande processvatten skulle reningsmetoden fokusera på antingen reduktion av mikroorganismer, organiskt material eller både och. Som för anläggningar med icke-cirkulerande vatten verkar perättiksyra vara det bästa alternativet för reduktion av mikroorganismer. En avancerad oxidationsprocess skulle kunna användas för att reducera mängden mikroorganismer och organiskt material.</p>

Water is one of the fundamental components of concrete, not only for its role on the hydration of Portland cement, but also because of the physical functions it develops, which are associated with the main phases of concrete life: fresh state, hardened state and the useful life of the structures. The objective of this PhD Thesis is to study in detail the physical role of water in Portland cement mixtures: the aggregate absorption, the wetting and the fluidization of the granular skeletons that compose the cement pastes. The study covers the mathematical modelling of the mentioned physical functions in a way that it is possible to calculate the volume of water necessary to perform such functions, facilitating the mix-design process. The calculated volume is considered to be the total volume of water needed for production. Moreover, the calculation must take into account the conditions and constraints associated with the production and casting, as well as the technical requirements of the material to be designed. The modelling of the water physical functions allowed the development of a calculation method to quantify the approximate volume of water needed for concrete production. The developed method was used to calculate the volume of water of three different special concretes: a lightweight self-compacting concrete reinforced with fibres, an ultra-high performance concrete reinforced with steel fibres and a concrete with recycled aggregates. What is more, the volume of water for two conventional concretes, with compressive strengths of 25 and 30 MPa, was calculated. Since the calculation was based on granular skeletons for real mixtures, produced in laboratory or/and industrially, the results obtained through the use of the developed method were compared to the experimental results of each concrete. At last, the method was used to quantify the volume of paste necessary for the production of a porous concrete. The results show that the mathematical models used to describe the physical phenomena of absorption, wetting and fluidization fit well to the experimental reproduction of these phenomena. Corrections are needed in some situations due to the ideal boundary conditions adopted during modelling, which facilitate calculation. Anyhow, the errors are corrected through the use of adjusting coefficients. Therefore, the calculation method developed has proven itself effective and applicable in the mix-design of different types of conventional and special concretes, showing the potential to be used for the development of new materials. / El agua es uno de los componentes fundamentales del hormigón, no sólo por ser necesaria a la hidratación del cemento Portland, sino que también por las diferentes funciones físicas que desarrolla, las cuales están asociadas a las principales fases de la vida del hormigón: estado fresco, estado endurecido y vida útil de la estructura. El objetivo de la presente Tesis Doctoral es realizar un estudio detallado de las funciones físicas del agua en las mezclas de cemento Portland: la absorción de esta por los áridos, el mojado y la fluidificación de los conjuntos granulares que componen las pastas de cemento. Dicho estudio se traduce en la modelización matemática de las funciones físicas presentadas, en el sentido de dar una respuesta numérica que facilite el diseño de mezclas, acotando el volumen de agua necesario al desarrollo de las funciones especificadas, siendo éste el volumen de agua total necesario a la producción. Asimismo, el cálculo del referido volumen debe tener en cuenta los condicionantes de producción, puesta en obra, así como los requerimientos técnicos del material que se va diseñar. A través de la modelización de las funciones físicas del agua consideradas, se ha desarrollado un método de cálculo para acotar el volumen de agua total necesario a la producción de hormigones. Se ha utilizado el método desarrollado para el cálculo del volumen de agua de tres hormigones especiales distintos: hormigón ligero autocompactante con fibras, hormigón de ultra-alta resistencia reforzado con fibras de acero y hormigón con áridos reciclados. Asimismo, se ha calculado el volumen de agua para dos hormigones convencionales, de resistencias à compresión 25 y 30 MPa. Se han contrastado los resultados obtenidos por el uso del método desarrollado con los resultados experimentales de cada hormigón, ya que el cálculo se hizo con base en conjuntos granulares de mezclas reales, producidas en laboratorio y/o industrialmente. Por último, se ha utilizado el modelo desarrollado para la cuantificación del volumen de pasta necesario a la producción de un hormigón poroso. Los resultados demuestran que los modelos matemáticos utilizados para describir los fenómenos físicos de absorción, mojado y fluidificación se adecuan bien a la reproducción experimental de dichos fenómenos, en que correcciones son necesarias en algunas situaciones, debido a la adopción de condiciones de contorno ideales en la modelización, que facilitan los cálculos. De cualquier modo, los errores se corrigen a través de coeficientes de ajuste. Así, el método de cálculo desarrollado para acotar el volumen de agua se ha demostrado eficiente en el diseño de diferentes tipos de hormigones convencionales y especiales, pudiendo ser utilizado en el desarrollo de nuevos materiales.

Upgradering av biogas med tekniken vattenabsorption är vanligt i Sverige. Elva biogasanläggningar med tillsammans fjorton uppgraderingsanläggningar använder sig av tekniken. Problem med igensättning av fyllkroppar i absorptionskolonnen, samt i ett fall i desorptionskolonnen är vanligt förekommande och har en negativ effekt på uppgraderingen av rågas till fordonsgas. Fem av de nio anläggningarna i denna studie har problem med mikrobiell tillväxt på fyllkropparna. Syftet med denna rapport var att identifiera den mikrobiella tillväxten och avgöra vilka faktorer som reglerar den för att kunna rådge driftsansvariga hur man motverkar tillväxt. En enkät skickades ut och studiebesök gjordes för att samla information om anläggningarna. Fosfolipidfettsyra (PLFA)-analyser utfördes för att bestämma mikrobiell biomassa och de organismer, som kan indikeras av de PLFA som är s.k. biomarkörer. Prover samlades in från fyra uppgraderingsanläggningar: Jönköping, Kristianstad, Linköping och Uppsala. Proverna som samlades in var till utseendet olika, allt från gult slem från Linköping till röd-brun gegga som liknade kaffe-sump från Uppsala. I proverna från Linköping och Uppsala detekterades biomarkörer för metanoxiderande bakterier (metanotrofer) av typ I. Metanotrofer finns i jord, vatten och luft i miljöer med tillgång till metan och syre. I Jönköpingsproverna detekterades biomarkörer actinomyceter som är en vanligt förekommande bakterie i avloppsreningsverkens luftningsbassänger. Den mikrobiella tillväxten som samlades in från Kristianstad räckte enbart till ett prov och därför är det resultatet ej tillförlitligt. I samtliga prover detekterades svamp (fungi) som förmodligen etablerats efter andra organismer. Faktorer som kan anses påverka den mikrobiella tillväxten är processvattnets kvalitet, pH och temperatur. Rent vatten (dricksvatten) innehåller mindre mängd organiskt material, samtliga anläggningar som använder sig av avloppsvatten upplever problem. Lågt pH är gynnsamt för att minska den mikrobiella tillväxten eftersom de flesta organismer trivs bäst vid neutralt pH. Låg temperatur är gynnsam eftersom lösligheten för koldioxid och divätesulfid är större vid lägre temperaturer, vilket gynnar uppgraderingen av biogas. / Upgrading of biogas performed using the technique absorption with water wash is common in Sweden where eleven biogas plants, comprising a total of fourteen upgrading plants use this technique. However problems with microbial growth on the pall-rings in the absorption column, and in one case in the desorption column, have negative impact on upgrading the raw gas to vehicle gas. Five of the nine biogas plants studied here have experienced problems with microbial growth. The objective of this report was to identify the microbial growth and determine possible factors regulating microbial growth in order to give advice to process management. A questionnaire was sent out and visits were made to the upgrading plants to collect information about the plants. A phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis was performed to determine microbial biomass and community structure, for which PLFA biomarkers are one type of indicator. Samples were analysed from four upgrading plants: Jönköping, Kristinstad, Linköping and Uppsala. The cultures collected were visually different, varying from yellow and slimy to reddish brown with the consistency of coffee grounds. In the Linköping and Uppsala samples, biomarkers for methane-oxidising bacteria (type I methanotrophs) were detected. Methanotrophs live in environments with access to methane and oxygen and are inhibited by e.g. acetylene. In the Jönköping samples biomarkers indicating the bacteria actinomycetes common in the water of aeration tanks in sewage treatment plants, were detected. In Kristianstad there was only enough culture for one sample, so no reliable result was obtained. Fungi were detected in all samples and probably established after other organisms. Factors affecting development of microbial growth were found to be water quality, pH and temperature of the process water. Clean water (drinking water) contains less organic material than cleaned water from sewage treatment plants. All plants using water from sewage treatment plants have experienced microbial growth. Low pH is beneficial for reducing microbial growth since most organisms prefer a neutral environment. Low temperature is beneficial for minimising microbial growth since the solubility of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide increases with decreasing temperature.

For produced biogas to be usable as vehicle fuel it has to be upgraded to a higher energy content. This is accomplished by elevation of the methane concentration through removal of carbon dioxide. Absorption with water wash is the most common upgrading method used in Sweden today. The upgrading technique is based on the fact that carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than methane. Upgrading plants that utilises this method have problems with microbial growth in the system. This growth eventually leads to a stop in operation due to the gradually drop in upgrading capacity. The aim of this thesis were to evaluate the possibility to through some kind of water treatment maintain an acceptable level of growth or altogether prevent it in order to maintain an acceptable process capacity and thereby avoid the need to clean. Through collection of literature the implementation possibilities were evaluated with regard to efficiency, economic sustainability and if there would be a release of any harmful substances. In order to prevent the microbial growth in the columns the treatment should either focus on removing microorganisms or limit the accessible nutrients. For the single pass system it is concluded that the treatment should reduce the biofilm formation and be employed in an intermittent way. Among the evaluated treatments focusing on the reduction of microorganisms the addition of peracetic acid seems to be the most promising one. For the regenerating system the treatment method could focus on either one. As for the single pass system peracetic acid could be added to reduce the amount of microorganism. To reduce the amount of organic matter an advanced oxidation process could be deployed with the advantage that it also could remove the microorganisms. / För att kunna använda den producerade biogasen som fordonsgas måste dess energiinnehåll höjas. Detta åstadkoms genom avskiljning av koldioxid så att metankoncentrationen ökar. Den vanligaste förekommande uppgraderingstekniken i Sveriges är absorption med vatten, som bygger på att koldioxid är mer lösligt än metan i vatten under tryck. Uppgraderingsanläggningarna har mikrobiell tillväxt på fyllkropparna i absorptionskolonnen, vilket ofrånkommligen orsakar en lägre uppgraderingskapacitet och slutligen är ett stopp i produktionen nödvändig för kunna tvätta fyllkropparna. Anläggningarna som recirkulerar processvattnet kan även ha tillväxt i kolonnen, där den lösta koldioxiden tas bort. Syftet med detta arbete var att genom en litteraturstudie undersöka om det vore möjligt att undvika eller åtminstone hålla tillväxten under en acceptabel nivå genom någon typ av vattenrening. De olika reningsmetoderna utvärderades med avseende på möjlighet att implementeras i det befintliga uppgraderings systemet, effektivitet, möjliga utsläpp och ekonomisk hållbarhet. För att begränsa tillväxt i kolonnerna ska vattenreningen antingen fokusera på att ta bort mikroorganismer eller begränsa tillgången på näringsämnen för bakterierna som når kolonnerna via biogasen, luften som används för att ta bort koldioxiden från vattnet, eller via vattnet. För uppgraderingsanläggningar där processvattnet bara passerar kolonnen en gång rekommenderas en reningsmetod som fokuserar på reducera bildandet av biofilmen. Av de utvärderade metoderna ter sig perättiksyra som det bästa alternativet. För system med recirkulerande processvatten skulle reningsmetoden fokusera på antingen reduktion av mikroorganismer, organiskt material eller både och. Som för anläggningar med icke-cirkulerande vatten verkar perättiksyra vara det bästa alternativet för reduktion av mikroorganismer. En avancerad oxidationsprocess skulle kunna användas för att reducera mängden mikroorganismer och organiskt material.

Hydrophobic Surface modification of biofibers to reduce water/moisture absorption of the biofiber or biofiber-plastic composites has attracted many researchers. In order to reduce the moisture sensitivity of kraft and mechanical pulp fibers, organo-nanoclay particles were adsorbed on the biofiber surfaces. Surface hydrophobicity, in terms of moisture absorption, water uptake, water contact angle and surface energy of the modified fibers were tested. The treated fibers had nano-scale surface roughness and substantially lower surface energy. The thermal stability of the mechanical pulp fibers increased after the nanoclay modification. The organo-nanoclay treated kraft and mechanical pulp fibers were used to make biofiber reinforced high density polyethylene (HDPE) composites. The organo-nanoclay treated kraft fibers had a more uniform dispersion in the HDPE matrix and the resulting composites had a higher Young’s modulus and thermal stability. Similar trend was observed for the mechanical pulp fiber-HDPE composites. The adhesion between the kraft fibers and matrix was greatly improved after adding maleic anhydride polyethylene (MAPE) as a compatibilizer, therefore, improvements in tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and thermal stability of both treated and untreated fiber composites were observed. However, this improvement was more significant for the composites containing the treated fibers. In addition, water absorption was decreased by incorporating the organo-nanoclay treated mechanical pulp fibers in the HDPE composites. The treated kraft fiber-HDPE-MAPE composites also showed a decrease in water absorption. The crystallization behaviors of the organo-nanoclay treated and untreated kraft fiber-HDPE composites with and without MAPE compatibilizer were studied. It was found by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis that both organo-nanoclay treated and untreated kraft fibers could act as nucleating agents. All composites crystallized much faster than the neat HDPE, while their crystallinity levels were lower. The organo-nanoclay treatment of the kraft fibers increased the nucleation rate. However, both the crystallinity level and the nucleation rate of the treated kraft fiber composites were increased by the addition of the MAPE compatibilizer. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis reveled that MAPE could also increase the d-spacing of the organo-nanoclay layers in the composites. When the fiber loading was 40 wt% in the composites, exfoliation of the nanoclays in the composites was observed.

Hydrophobic Surface modification of biofibers to reduce water/moisture absorption of the biofiber or biofiber-plastic composites has attracted many researchers. In order to reduce the moisture sensitivity of kraft and mechanical pulp fibers, organo-nanoclay particles were adsorbed on the biofiber surfaces. Surface hydrophobicity, in terms of moisture absorption, water uptake, water contact angle and surface energy of the modified fibers were tested. The treated fibers had nano-scale surface roughness and substantially lower surface energy. The thermal stability of the mechanical pulp fibers increased after the nanoclay modification. The organo-nanoclay treated kraft and mechanical pulp fibers were used to make biofiber reinforced high density polyethylene (HDPE) composites. The organo-nanoclay treated kraft fibers had a more uniform dispersion in the HDPE matrix and the resulting composites had a higher Young’s modulus and thermal stability. Similar trend was observed for the mechanical pulp fiber-HDPE composites. The adhesion between the kraft fibers and matrix was greatly improved after adding maleic anhydride polyethylene (MAPE) as a compatibilizer, therefore, improvements in tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and thermal stability of both treated and untreated fiber composites were observed. However, this improvement was more significant for the composites containing the treated fibers. In addition, water absorption was decreased by incorporating the organo-nanoclay treated mechanical pulp fibers in the HDPE composites. The treated kraft fiber-HDPE-MAPE composites also showed a decrease in water absorption. The crystallization behaviors of the organo-nanoclay treated and untreated kraft fiber-HDPE composites with and without MAPE compatibilizer were studied. It was found by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis that both organo-nanoclay treated and untreated kraft fibers could act as nucleating agents. All composites crystallized much faster than the neat HDPE, while their crystallinity levels were lower. The organo-nanoclay treatment of the kraft fibers increased the nucleation rate. However, both the crystallinity level and the nucleation rate of the treated kraft fiber composites were increased by the addition of the MAPE compatibilizer. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis reveled that MAPE could also increase the d-spacing of the organo-nanoclay layers in the composites. When the fiber loading was 40 wt% in the composites, exfoliation of the nanoclays in the composites was observed.