The use of sunlight for water disinfection has been practiced since ancient times. Only in the last three decades has solar disinfection become widely recognized as a viable means of providing safe drinking water to the disadvantaged portion of the world’s population. The World Health Organization estimates that 1.6 million people die every year because of waterborne diseases. <br/><br/> The Swiss Federal Institute of Environmental Science and Technology and their Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries have been instrumental in propagating the solar water disinfection (SODIS) process in developing countries. The reason for this technology being widely used and accepted is its ease of use and effectiveness: water is placed in clear plastic bottles and exposed to direct sunlight for approximately six hours. The microorganisms in the water absorb the sunlight and it, in turn at sufficient UV dosages, causes mutations to their genetic material, inhibiting reproduction. Although some pathogens may still be viable they are no longer infective. The result is microbiologically safe water. <br/><br/> Research to date has explored everything from which colour and size the SODIS containers should be to whether adding catalysts to the water before exposure improves disinfection. Apart from a few studies that examined the effect of shaking the bottles (to entrain air) before exposure, there has been limited research on pretreatments for enhancing solar disinfection. <br/><br/> The focus of this project was to explore two pretreatments for SODIS and determine how they affect the efficiency of the process. The first stage was to examine one of the currently used pretreatments: cleaning the water containers before use. The second stage was to develop an accessible, low-cost filtration technique to remove particles from the water before exposure to sunlight. Particles in the water disperse the light and protect the microorganisms from being inactivated, so it is important to have as few particles as possible; the recommended upper limit is 30 NTU for solar disinfection. In many instances, surface water with high turbidity (greater than 200 NTU) serves as the only source for drinking water in developing areas. <br/><br/> The first series of experiments in the current research evaluated if cleaning the bottles was necessary and if so, which cleaning agents would be most effective and available. The agents selected were 70% isopropyl alcohol, a soap-water mixture, and lime juice. The experiments demonstrated that cleaning with 70% isopropyl alcohol did not affect the process in any way. Cleaning with the soap-water mixture did have a slightly negative effect on the process; there was substantial microbial recovery when bottles were kept in the dark overnight. In the case of the lime juice, it actually inhibited the disinfection process. It is necessary to remove any debris that might exist within the containers before using them, but using a chemical cleaning agent or mechanically scrubbing can decrease the amount of disinfection that occurs during SODIS. Thus, it is suggested that using a chemical pretreatment is not necessary and has the potential to inhibit disinfection, especially without proper training or technical knowledge. <br/><br/> The second series of experiments identified the optimal design for a low-cost roughing filter that could be used to remove particles from water before exposure to sunlight. The roughing filter that was built from the same plastic pop bottles used for solar disinfection, as well as gravel and sand. It was constructed with three centimetres of gravel on the bottom of the pop bottle and then 17 cm of coarse sand was added on top to make the total filter height 20 cm. A 0.6 mm hole was made at approximately 1.5 cm from the bottom of the bottle using a standard sewing needle. Each filter run consisted of 10 L of water at approximately 200 NTU. Experimental results indicated that 95% removal of turbidity could be achieved. These roughing filters can be constructed from readily available and affordable materials in developing countries and produce an effluent water quality of less than 30 NTU when initial turbidities are greater than 200 NTU. <br/><br/> Finally, the third series of experiments focused on testing the newly developed roughing filter in series with SODIS to evaluate the system as a whole. The results confirmed that using the roughing filter, as a pretreatment to SODIS, is a highly effective means of improving the disinfection potential of the process. These roughing filters produce an effluent water quality of less than 30 NTU, which is required for SODIS, making them a viable pretreatment for turbid water intended for SODIS use.

The use of sunlight for water disinfection has been practiced since ancient times. Only in the last three decades has solar disinfection become widely recognized as a viable means of providing safe drinking water to the disadvantaged portion of the world’s population. The World Health Organization estimates that 1.6 million people die every year because of waterborne diseases. <br/><br/> The Swiss Federal Institute of Environmental Science and Technology and their Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries have been instrumental in propagating the solar water disinfection (SODIS) process in developing countries. The reason for this technology being widely used and accepted is its ease of use and effectiveness: water is placed in clear plastic bottles and exposed to direct sunlight for approximately six hours. The microorganisms in the water absorb the sunlight and it, in turn at sufficient UV dosages, causes mutations to their genetic material, inhibiting reproduction. Although some pathogens may still be viable they are no longer infective. The result is microbiologically safe water. <br/><br/> Research to date has explored everything from which colour and size the SODIS containers should be to whether adding catalysts to the water before exposure improves disinfection. Apart from a few studies that examined the effect of shaking the bottles (to entrain air) before exposure, there has been limited research on pretreatments for enhancing solar disinfection. <br/><br/> The focus of this project was to explore two pretreatments for SODIS and determine how they affect the efficiency of the process. The first stage was to examine one of the currently used pretreatments: cleaning the water containers before use. The second stage was to develop an accessible, low-cost filtration technique to remove particles from the water before exposure to sunlight. Particles in the water disperse the light and protect the microorganisms from being inactivated, so it is important to have as few particles as possible; the recommended upper limit is 30 NTU for solar disinfection. In many instances, surface water with high turbidity (greater than 200 NTU) serves as the only source for drinking water in developing areas. <br/><br/> The first series of experiments in the current research evaluated if cleaning the bottles was necessary and if so, which cleaning agents would be most effective and available. The agents selected were 70% isopropyl alcohol, a soap-water mixture, and lime juice. The experiments demonstrated that cleaning with 70% isopropyl alcohol did not affect the process in any way. Cleaning with the soap-water mixture did have a slightly negative effect on the process; there was substantial microbial recovery when bottles were kept in the dark overnight. In the case of the lime juice, it actually inhibited the disinfection process. It is necessary to remove any debris that might exist within the containers before using them, but using a chemical cleaning agent or mechanically scrubbing can decrease the amount of disinfection that occurs during SODIS. Thus, it is suggested that using a chemical pretreatment is not necessary and has the potential to inhibit disinfection, especially without proper training or technical knowledge. <br/><br/> The second series of experiments identified the optimal design for a low-cost roughing filter that could be used to remove particles from water before exposure to sunlight. The roughing filter that was built from the same plastic pop bottles used for solar disinfection, as well as gravel and sand. It was constructed with three centimetres of gravel on the bottom of the pop bottle and then 17 cm of coarse sand was added on top to make the total filter height 20 cm. A 0.6 mm hole was made at approximately 1.5 cm from the bottom of the bottle using a standard sewing needle. Each filter run consisted of 10 L of water at approximately 200 NTU. Experimental results indicated that 95% removal of turbidity could be achieved. These roughing filters can be constructed from readily available and affordable materials in developing countries and produce an effluent water quality of less than 30 NTU when initial turbidities are greater than 200 NTU. <br/><br/> Finally, the third series of experiments focused on testing the newly developed roughing filter in series with SODIS to evaluate the system as a whole. The results confirmed that using the roughing filter, as a pretreatment to SODIS, is a highly effective means of improving the disinfection potential of the process. These roughing filters produce an effluent water quality of less than 30 NTU, which is required for SODIS, making them a viable pretreatment for turbid water intended for SODIS use.

N-nitrosamines are considered as a group of emerging disinfection byproducts (DBPs) with potential carcinogenicity at ng/L level. The presence of nitrosamines in drinking water is most commonly associated with chloramination of amine-based precursors. This research investigates the potential of amine-based pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) as nitrosamine precursors under practical drinking water disinfection conditions, as well as some critical factors that may affect the nitrosamine formation via PPCPs. All of the twenty selected PPCPs were able to form the corresponding nitrosamines upon chloramine disinfection, and eight of them rendered molar conversions higher than 1 % under practical disinfection conditions. Ranitidine had the highest N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) molar conversion among the tested PPCPs. A three-parameter kinetic model was proposed to describe and predict the NDMA formation from pharmaceuticals during chloramination in various water matrices. The model accurately reflected all three significant characteristics of the NDMA formation curve, including an initial lag phase, followed by a fast increase in NDMA formation, and eventually reaching a plateau. In lab-grade water, the NDMA formation from pharmaceuticals was affected by the Cl2:NH4-N mass ratio, pH, and prechlorination. The NDMA formation increased with the Cl2:NH4-N mass ratio, indicating an enhancement effect of dichloramine. The pH affected both the ultimate NDMA conversion and the reaction rate. The reaction rate is mainly determined by the level of non-protonated amine species, and it increased consistently with increasing pH. The ultimate NDMA conversion is limited by the level of dichloramine, and the maximum NDMA formation occurred in the pH range of 7 to 8. The application of prechlorination may increase or reduce the NDMA conversion, depending on the chlorine reactivity towards the amine group and its surrounding structures. Water matrix components can slow down the initial NDMA formation from selected pharmaceuticals most likely due to the formation of natural organic matter (NOM)-pharmaceutical complexes, while they had less impact on the ultimate NDMA molar conversion. The application of prechlorination may enhance the initial reaction by destroying the NOM-pharmaceutical complexes, but prolonged prechlorination may further inhibit the NDMA formation due to the binding between pharmaceuticals and NOM breakdown products.

N-nitrosamines are considered as a group of emerging disinfection byproducts (DBPs) with potential carcinogenicity at ng/L level. The presence of nitrosamines in drinking water is most commonly associated with chloramination of amine-based precursors. This research investigates the potential of amine-based pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) as nitrosamine precursors under practical drinking water disinfection conditions, as well as some critical factors that may affect the nitrosamine formation via PPCPs. All of the twenty selected PPCPs were able to form the corresponding nitrosamines upon chloramine disinfection, and eight of them rendered molar conversions higher than 1 % under practical disinfection conditions. Ranitidine had the highest N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) molar conversion among the tested PPCPs. A three-parameter kinetic model was proposed to describe and predict the NDMA formation from pharmaceuticals during chloramination in various water matrices. The model accurately reflected all three significant characteristics of the NDMA formation curve, including an initial lag phase, followed by a fast increase in NDMA formation, and eventually reaching a plateau. In lab-grade water, the NDMA formation from pharmaceuticals was affected by the Cl2:NH4-N mass ratio, pH, and prechlorination. The NDMA formation increased with the Cl2:NH4-N mass ratio, indicating an enhancement effect of dichloramine. The pH affected both the ultimate NDMA conversion and the reaction rate. The reaction rate is mainly determined by the level of non-protonated amine species, and it increased consistently with increasing pH. The ultimate NDMA conversion is limited by the level of dichloramine, and the maximum NDMA formation occurred in the pH range of 7 to 8. The application of prechlorination may increase or reduce the NDMA conversion, depending on the chlorine reactivity towards the amine group and its surrounding structures. Water matrix components can slow down the initial NDMA formation from selected pharmaceuticals most likely due to the formation of natural organic matter (NOM)-pharmaceutical complexes, while they had less impact on the ultimate NDMA molar conversion. The application of prechlorination may enhance the initial reaction by destroying the NOM-pharmaceutical complexes, but prolonged prechlorination may further inhibit the NDMA formation due to the binding between pharmaceuticals and NOM breakdown products.

Home based interventions are advocated in rural areas against a variety of diseases. The combination of different interventions might have synergistic effects in terms of health improvement and cost effectiveness. However, it is crucial to ensure cultural acceptance. The aim of the study was to develop an effective and culturally accepted home-based intervention package to reduce diarrhoea and lower respiratory illnesses in children. In two rural Peruvian communities we evaluated the performance and acceptance of cooking devices, household water treatments (HWT) and home–hygiene interventions, with qualitative and quantitative methods. New ventilated stove designs reduced wood consumption by 16%. The majority of participants selected solar water disinfection as HWT in a blind tasting. In-depth interviews on hygiene improvement further revealed a high demand for kitchen sinks. After one year of installation the improved chimney stoves and kitchen sinks were all in use. The intervention package was successfully adapted to local customs, kitchen-, home–and hygiene management. High user satisfaction was primarily driven by convenience gains due to the technical improvements and only secondarily by perceived health benefits. / Revisión por pares.

Aim of this thesis was to use the ozonisation as a disinfection method for improving of water quality in the intensive fish farms using RAS (recirculating aquaculture system). The main assessed parameter was effect of ozone treatment on fish health and RAS functions and features. Two RAS were used in this study one with use of ozone treatment, one without ozone treatment (control system). There were cultured two different fish species in these two RAS - pikeperch (Sander lucioperca) and European catfish (Silurus glanis). The main reason for use of these two species is that they are perspective species for intensive aquaculture. In the RAS with ozone treatment, two different methods of ozone application were tested - periodical and continual application. The effect of ozone treatment on fish health and conditions was controlled regularly. Ozone treatment had positively affected the survival of both cultured species (pikeperch survival: with ozone = 77.0 % and without ozone = 67.2 %; European catfish: with ozone = 93.1 % and without ozone = 91.5 %). Ozone treatment also positively affected the water chemistry. The greatest difference was observed in CHSKMn: with ozone = 6.4?1.2 mg.l; without ozone = 10.7?1.6 mg.l. The same features were observed in suspended solids: with ozone = 4.3?2.8 mg.l-1; without ozone = 8.17?6.2 mg.l. Appearance of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis and bacterial infection were not affected by ozone treatment. The main result of this thesis and this design of experiment is that ozone treatment had a positive impact on water chemistry in observed RAS and it, however, didn't kill 100% of the fish pathogens.

Please read the abstract in the section 00front of this document / Dissertation (MEng (Water Utilization))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Chemical Engineering / unrestricted

Métodos de desinfecção da água destinam-se à inativação de patógenos a fim de minimizar o risco de doenças transmitidas pela água. Estes métodos incluem tratamento com luz ultravioleta e processos químicos, para o qual cloro, dióxido de cloro, hipoclorito e ozônio são comumente utilizados. No entanto, métodos analíticos modernos revelam que estes métodos padrão de desinfecção da água podem levar à formação de produtos tóxicos e potencialmente cancerígenos. Desse modo, desenvolver métodos mais adequados para a desinfecção de água é uma necessidade. Inativação Fotodinâmica é uma nova abordagem para a eliminação de microrganismos patogênicos. Basicamente, esse processo utiliza fotossensibilizadores e luz para promover uma resposta fototóxica, normalmente oxidativa, capaz de danificar biomoléculas e estruturas celulares, provocando a morte dos microrganismos. No entanto, o fotossensibilizador não pode permanecer livre como um contaminante neste tipo de aplicação. Assim, o objetivo desse estudo foi o desenvolvimento de membranas de quitosana com fotossensibilizadores incorporados visando à desinfecção microbiológica da água. As membranas foram preparadas incorporando-se o azul de metileno, a rosa de bengala, meso-tetrakis (4-N-metilpiridil)-porfirina ou a 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(p-aminofenil)-porfirina. A eficiência do processo de Inativação Fotodinâmica com os fotossensibilizadores incorporados as membrana foi investigada empregando-se a bactéria Escherichia coli como modelo, já que esta bactéria está comumente presente em águas de abastecimento. Os resultados mostraram que, dentre os quatro fotossensibilizadores incorporados em membranas de quitosana, o processo fotodinâmico empregando a TMPyP se mostrou mais efetivo: 5 log de redução após 120 minutos de irradiação com LED branco e 4 log de redução após 120 e 140 minutos de irradiação com LED azul e amarelo, respectivamente. Além disso, com o intuito de simular uma situação real de desinfecção, um sistema circulatório de água, contendo membranas de quitosana/TMPyP reforçadas com nylon, foi empregado. Os resultados mostraram que o processo de fotoinativação dinâmico foi efetivo, apresentando 3 log de redução em 80 minutos de irradiação com LED branco. Estes resultados sugerem que o processo é efetivo para inativar bactérias contaminantes na água, empregando-se fotossensibilizadores incorporados em quitosana como suporte polimérico. / Methods of water disinfection aim to inactivate pathogens in order to minimize the risk of waterborne diseases. These methods include treatment with ultraviolet light and chemical processes, for which chlorine, chlorine dioxide, hypochlorite and ozone are commonly used. However, modern analytical methods reveal that these standard methods of water disinfection may lead to the formation of toxic and potentially carcinogenic products. Thus, developing suitable methods for water disinfection is a necessity. Photodynamic inactivation is a new approach to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms. Basically, this process uses photosensitizers and light to promote a phototoxic response, normally oxidative, capable of damaging biomolecules and cellular structures, causing the death of microorganisms. However, the photosensitizer cannot remain free as a contaminant in this type of application. The objective of this study was to develop chitosan membranes with incorporated photosensitizers aiming the microbiological water disinfection. The membranes were prepared by incorporating methylene blue, rose bengal, meso-tetrakis (4-N-methylpyridyl)-porphine or the 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(p-aminophenyl)- porphyrin. The efficiency of the Photodynamic Inactivation with photosensitizers incorporated into the membrane was investigated using the bacteria Escherichia coli as a model, since this bacteria is commonly present in drinking water. The results showed that, among the four photosensitizers incorporated into chitosan membranes, the process employing the TMPyP was more effective: 5 log reduction after 120 minutes of irradiation with white LED and 4 log reduction after 120 and 140 minutes of irradiation with blue and yellow LED, respectively. Moreover, in order to simulate a real situation of disinfection, a water circulation system, containing TMPyP/chitosan membranes reinforced with nylon, was employed. The results showed that the process of photoinactivation using a dynamic system was effective, with about 3 log reduction in 80 minutes of irradiation with white LED. These results suggest that the process is effective to inactivate bacterial contaminants in water using photosensitizers incorporated into chitosan as a polymeric support.

No description available.

Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MAGISTER TECHNOLOGIAE: CHEMICAL ENGINEERING in the FACULTY OF ENGINEERING at the CAPE PENINSULA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY 2013 / This study focused on quantifying two types of internationally regulated contaminants found in drinking water: 1) Trihalomethanes (THMs) and 2) Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs). The first contaminants monitored were THMs, classified as a group of chemicals that are formed along with others during the disinfection of water using liquid chlorine, chlorine dioxide or chlorine gas. Hence, the resulting compounds are called disinfection by-products (DBPs). The disinfectant reacts with natural organic matter in water to form common THMs, which include chloroform (CHCl3 or CF), bromodichloromethane (CHCl2Br or BDCM), dibromochloromethane (CHClBr2 or DBCM) and bromoform (CHBr3 or BF), with chloroform being the most common in chlorinated water systems. The current study has focused on THMs for two primary reasons: 1) THMs have raised significant concern as a result of evidence that associate their presence in drinking water with potential adverse human health effects, including cancer and 2) the levels of THMs in drinking water post-treatment is not monitored regularly in South Africa and thus far, there is inadequate and limited information about their concentration levels for drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and distribution stations (DWDSs) of the Western Cape, South Africa before, distribution to various suburbs, including townships. THMs normally occur at higher levels than any other known DBPs and their presence in treated water is a representative of the occurrence of many other DBPs. THMs were quantified in chlorinated drinking water obtained from seven (7) DWTPs, namely; Atlantis, Blackheath, Faure, Brooklands, Steenbras, Voelvlei and Wemmershoek, and one DWDS in Plattekloof. This included determining THMs concentration in tap water collected from various suburbs including townships, to assist local authorities in obtaining information on their concentration and whether or not the presence of residual chlorine and organic matter on post-treatment results has increased THMs at the point of use. THM analysis was performed using liquid-liquid extraction/gas chromatography with electron capture detector (LLE-GC-ECD) analytical process according to the EPA method 501.2, which was used with minor modifications. The instrument operational conditions were as follows: Column → DB5-26, 30 mm, 0.53 mm, 1.0 μm df HP-1 (Agilent Technologies, USA); Carrier gas → Helium at a constant inlet pressure of 15 kPa; Make-up gas → 99.9% Nitrogen gas at 60 L/min; Injector temperature → 40°C; Oven temperature → 270°C and Detector temperature → 300°C. Since natural organic matter (NOM) in raw water is a precursor for THM formation, NOM analysis was performed as total organic carbon (TOC) using Spectroquant TOC test kits. Other drinking water quality parameters analysed were pH, residual free chlorine, conductivity and total dissolved solids (TDS). The average Total THM concentrations detected from seven of the DWTPs, including the DWDS, ranged from 26.52 μg/L (for Plattekloof) to 32.82 μg/L (for Brooklands), with the observed concentrations being comparable. The average chloroform concentrations were the highest in all the water samples, ranging from 11.74 μg/L (for Plattekloof) to 22.29 μg/L (for Voelvlei), while DBCM had the lowest concentration. The only DWTP that was not comparable with the seven DWTPs was Atlantis, with the highest average TTHM concentration of 83.48 μg/L and a chloroform concentration of 46.06 μg/L. From the tap water samples collected from 14 Western Cape suburbs, the average TTHM concentrations ranged from 5.30 ug/L (for Mandalay) to 13.12 μg/L (for Browns Farm, Philippi), and all these concentrations were lower than the TTHM concentrations detected in the water samples from the DWTP. Overall, the average total THM and individual THM species concentrations were below the recommended SANS 241:2011 and WHO drinking water guideline limits. This included the observed pH (6.39 to 7.73), residual free chlorine (0.22 to 1.06 mg/L), conductivity (121 to 444 μS/cm), TDS (93.93 to 344.35 mg/L) and TOC (0.38 to 1.20 mg/L). All these water quality parameters were within the specification limits stipulated in SANS 241. However, the average residual free chlorine concentration for Atlantis was very low (0.06 mg/L), which was below the WHO minimum residual free chlorine concentration guideline value of 0.2 mg/L for a distribution network – an indication that suggested the need for a re-chlorination station prior to distribution to households. Low chlorine content might result in the formation of unwanted biofilms in the distribution network, thus reducing the organoleptic properties of the water. Additionally, there was no direct link between several water quality parameters quantified (i.e. pH, TOC and water temperature) to TTHM formation. However, a high chlorine dose was observed to result directly in a higher concentration of chloroform in treated water prior to distribution. The second contaminants monitored were Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), which are non-biodegradable, persistent and toxic organic chemicals known for their ability to contaminate environmental matrices, including drinking water sources. In recent years, many researchers considered it essential to identify and quantify PFC levels in drinking water worldwide with the main focus being on the two most abundant PFCs; namely Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). Their toxic effects to human health, plants and wildlife were also evaluated, classifying them as possible carcinogens. We know from the literature reviewed that, although the presence of PFCs in drinking water has been documented worldwide, there is limited information about their presence specifically in South African drinking water sources, even about less studied PFCs such as Perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), Perfluorododecanoic acid (PFDoA), Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), Perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUA), Perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDeA) and the well-known PFOA including PFOS. Although several other PFCs have been detected in water sources and reported in various studies, the USEPA only issued drinking water guideline limits for Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) of 400 ng/L and 200 ng/L, respectively, with no mention of the other PFCs. However, these PFCs have similar properties to those of PFOA and PFOS as they have been shown to impose similar detrimental health effects on human health. This study thus focused on the detection of PFCs in both raw and treated drinking water in the Western Cape DWTPs such as Atlantis, Blackheath, Faure, Brooklands, Steenbras, Voelvlei and Wemmershoek, and one DWDS in Plattekloof. Water samples (raw and treated water) used in this study for PFC analysis were collected in 2L polypropylene screw capped bottles. PFC analysis was performed in four sample batches for each location collected through the period of October to December 2012 (summer). PFCs were analysed in accordance with a modified EPA method 537, which entails solid phase extraction (SPE) followed by analysis using a liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometer (LC/MS/MS). The slight modification was with the water sample volume used for extraction, which was increased from 250 mL to 500 mL. The instrument used was an HPLC - Ultimate 3000 Dionex HPLC system and MS model - Amazon SL Ion Trap, with the following MS/MS operational conditions and Ion mode: MS Interface → ESI; Dry temp → 350C; Nebulizing pressure → 60 psi; Dry gas flow → 10 L/min; Ionisation mode → negative; capillary voltage → +4500V; End plate offset → −500V while the separation column was a Waters Sunfire C18, 5 μm, 4.6 × 150 mm column (Supplier: Waters, Dublin, Ireland) with an operational temperature of 30C. From the results obtained in this study, seven different PFCs (i.e. PFHpA, PFDoA, PFNA, PFUA, PFDeA, PFOA and PFOS), were detected in raw and treated water with PFOA and PFOS being the least detected PFCs as they were detected only in raw water (PFOA) from Faure, as well as raw and treated water (PFOS) from Brooklands. The highest concentration observed in treated water was for PFHpA, which was quantified at a maximum average concentration of 43.80 ng/L (Plattekloof). The maximum average concentrations of other PFCs detected were as follows: PFDoA - 4.415 ng/L for Faure raw water; PFNA - 2.922 ng/L for Plattekloof outlet; PFUA - 7.965 ng/L for Brooklands treated water and PFDeA - 2.744 ng/L for Faure raw water. Another observation from the results was that the concentration of the majority of the PFCs detected in treated water was higher than that quantified in raw water, suggesting possible contamination by materials used during water treatment. In conclusion, THMs detected in treated water from various DWTPs and one DWDS in the Western Cape met the required local and international drinking water quality guidelines, while the presence of PFOS, PFOA, PFHpA, PFDoA, PFNA, PFUA and PFDeA in treated water requires that local water professionals continue to monitor their presence to ensure that measures for their reduction are in place. Furthermore, the National standards (SANS 241) for municipal drinking water guidelines must be updated to include the monitoring of PFCs, including the lesser known and less studied PFCs such as PFHpA, PFDoA, PFNA, PFUA and PFDeA.