Better management of water resources is a growing concern with increasing stress on natural resources. Despite technological improvements in the past decades, a method to instantaneously measure soil water flux remains elusive, especially at a resolution adequate for monitoring natural processes (i.e. 1 mm d-1). The objectives of this research were to evaluate and improve two emerging methods for water flux estimates, 1) streaming potential and 2) heat pulse measurements, as tools to perform at these low flux rates. Streaming potential measures a voltage between two electrodes resulting from water with charged particles generating a current as it flows between the charged surfaces of the soil. Heat pulse measurements, performed with a penta-needle heat pulse probe (PHPP), measure the transport rate and direction of a heat pulse as it propagates from a central needle to surrounding thermistors through soil. Water moving past this sensor carries heat and this allows estimation of water flux from measured heat flux. Streaming potential experimentation demonstrated a clear voltage response to low flow rates. Unfortunately, inconsistent results coupled with measurement complications – susceptibility to electromagnetic noise, drifting, etc. – led to difficulties when trying to establish a congruent relationship between flow rate and voltage behavior. We concluded that the necessary steps to potentially improve measurement consistency made streaming potential less desirable to pursue compared to other emerging tools for water flux measurements. Heat pulse work focused on modifying design parameters to improve low flux rate determination. We tested the effect of increasing heater needle diameter (from 2 mm to 5 mm), increasing heating time (from 8 to 24 and 40 seconds), and doubling heat input (from 120 W m-1 to 240 W m-1) in saturated sand. Results indicated that using larger heater needles and higher heat input improve flux estimation but increasing heating time resulted in marginal improvement. By using a PHPP with a 5 mm heater needle, 24 second heating time, and 240 W m-1 heating input, fluxes were resolved down to 1 cm d-1. Refinement of calibration procedures and inconsistencies between probes used must be resolved if measurement resolution is to be improved further.

The purpose of this study was (1) to measure the changes in water flux in isolated roots exposed to n-DSA and its mono-methly ester (m-MDSA) using a photometric technique in the absence of an externally applied suction and (2) to measure the flux of Na and K in similarly treated roots using a flame photometric method.

Lagoons are coastal waterbodies which are sensitive to meteorological and hydrological changes. This study focused on the spatial distribution of salinity in Gialova lagoon, Greece. The area in which the lagoon is located is under pressure from agriculture and truism in the area. Besides that, the lagoon is an important stop for migratory birds as well as the home for rare species. To investigate how salinity is distributed in the lagoon a salinity gradient was produced. Also, an attempt was made to model the salt and fresh water fluxes in the lagoon using a mass balance approach. The water fluxes are either from fresh water sources or influx of saline water from the sea. Manual electric conductivity measurements were taken during a field campaign to the lagoon. Time series data used in the model was obtained from stations in the lagoon and the surroundings. An investigation in how the lagoon measurement station differ in salinity was also performed in this study. Results from the gradient map and manual measurements show that the water in the lagoon is the freshest in the North-Eastern parts and the most saline to the South-West. The modelled water fluxes show an inverse relationship from each other. High fresh water fluxes correspond to precipitation events, lower salinity concentration. Whereas high salt water fluxes correspond to high salinity concentration and lowered precipitation. The stations concentrated to the middle lagoon show corresponding values in salinity whereas the station to the South-West differs. The canal surrounding the lagoon shows interactions since measurements show that the water is brackish. A longer time series could provide patterns in water fluxes over time. Trying to find the portions of terrestrial groundwater and surface water, and further investigation of the regional aquifer could provide new information to develop this model. The region is expected to experience water stress which makes further studies and monitoring important.

Realizou-se, no Centro de Pesquisa de Peixes Tropicais (CEPTA/IBAMA), em Pirassununga-SP, um experimento com o objetivo de avaliar a influência da densidade de estocagem de peixes e do fluxo diferenciado de entrada e saída de água em viveiros de piscicultura nas características físicas e químicas da água; na estrutura (composição e densidade), biomassa, sucessão e diversidade de espécies da comunidade do fitoplâncton e na composição e densidade da comunidade do zooplâncton (considerando-se apenas grupo), procurando-se avaliar o balanço de entrada e saída de materiais em viveiros, enfatizando a concentração de nutrientes, comunidade planctônica, concentração de material em suspensão e clorofila a. Além disso, procurou-se quantificar os impactos da atividade da piscicultura nos recursos hídricos, demonstrando suas interações positivas e negativas com o ambiente. Os estudos foram desenvolvidos durante 60 dias, com coletas diárias inicialmente e a cada dois dias após o peixamento, analisando-se a temperatura, pH, condutividade elétrica da água, oxigênio dissolvido, material em suspensão, nutrientes, alcalinidade, dureza, cálcio, clorofila a, comunidade zooplanctônica e fitoplanctônica. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram o efeito do fluxo de água e da densidade de estocagem de peixes sobre as características físicas e químicas da água, observando-se a redução acentuada na concentração de oxigênio dissolvido na água (valores abaixo de 2 mg/l), aumento nas concentrações de fósforo e nitrogênio, material sem suspensão e clorofila a. Em conseqüência do aumento da concentração de nutrientes, principalmente de fósforo, ocorreu um aumento na biomassa e na densidade do fitoplâncton e na densidade do zooplâncton. A redução de oxigênio dissolvido na água, associado à outras variáveis, promoveu uma mortandade de peixes no tratamento T2. A divisão Chlorophyta foi dominante no fitoplâncton nos diferentes tratamentos e o padrão de sucessão observado foi Desmidiaceae&#8594Chlorococcales&#8594Cyanophyta. Em relação ao zooplâncton, Rotifera foi dominante na fase de enchimento, sendo posteriormente substituído por Cladocera e Copepoda. Nos diferentes tratamentos foi possível observar a interação indireta do efeito cascata. O sistema de piscicultura gerou cargas potencialmente poluidoras, sendo que a ração foi a responsável pelo incremento de nutrientes na água do efluente. Em média as concentrações de fósforo foram 36 vezes maior que o permitido por lei, enquadrando o efluente dos tratamentos como impróprio para serem lançados em rio de Classe 2. Considerando-se os resultados obtidos, recomenda-se o tratamento do efluente antes do lançamento no Rio Mogi-Guassu, corpo receptor e enquadrado como rio de Classe 2. / An experiment was conducted at the Tropical Fish Research Center (CEPTA, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil) to analyze the influence of the density of fish stocks and the differentiated water inflow and outflow in fishponds on the limnological characteristics of the water, its structure (composition and density), biomass fluctuations, succession and diversity of the phytoplankton and the composition and density of the zooplankton (considered only by group), in order to evaluate the balance of the entry and exit of biomass in fishponds, with emphasis on the concentration of nutrients, planktonic biomass (chlorophyll) and suspended matter. The experiment also aimed to quantify the impact of fishculture on hydric resources, demonstrating its positive and negative effects on the environment. The study was carried out for 60 days, with daily samples taken initially, and at two days\' interval after the introduction of the fish. The characteristics analyzed were water temperature, water load, dissolved oxygen, pH, conductivity, nutrients, suspended matter, chlorophyll a composition, density, diversity, abundance of phytoplankton, density and abundance of zooplankton. The results obtained demonstrated the effect of the water flow and the density of fish stocks on the physical and chemical characteristics of the water. An accentuated reduction was observed in dissolved oxygen concentrations (under 2 mg/l) and in increased phosphorous, nitrogen, organic matter and chlorophyll concentrations. The increased concentration of nutrients, mainly phosphorous, caused increased levels of phytoplankton and zooplankton biomass and density. The depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water, coupled to other variables, led to fish mortality under the T2 treatment. The Chlorophyta division predominated in the phytoplankton under the different treatments and the succession observed was a Desmidiaceae&#8594Chlorococcales&#8594Cyanophyta pattern. As for zooplancton, Rotifera predominated in the inflow phase and was later substituted by Cladocera and Copepoda. The indirect interaction of the cascade effect was observed during the different treatments. The fish culture system generated potentially polluting loads, with fish feed found to be responsible for the increased nutrient waste in the effluent. Phosphorus concentrations were, on average, 36 times higher than allowed by law, characterizing the effluent from the treatments as unsuitable to be cast into class 2 rivers. Based on the findings of this study and on environmental management strategies, it is recommended that the effluent be treated before the water is allowed to flow into the Class 2 recipient, the Mogi-Guassu river.

The market for polyamide desalination membranes is expected to continue to grow during the coming decades. Purification of alternative water sources will also be necessary to meet growing water demands. Purification of produced water, a byproduct of oil and gas production, is of interest due to its dual potential to provide water for beneficial use as well as to reduce wastewater disposal costs. However, current polyamide membranes are prone to fouling, which decreases water flux and shortens membrane lifetime. This research explored surface modification using poly(ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether (PEGDE) to improve the fouling resistance of commercial polyamide membranes. Characterization of commercial polyamide membrane performance was a necessary first step before undertaking surface modification studies. Membrane performance was found to be sensitive to crossflow testing conditions. Concentration polarization and feed pH strongly influenced NaCl rejection, and the use of continuous feed filtration led to higher water flux and lower NaCl rejection than was observed for similar tests performed using unfiltered feed. Two commercial polyamide membranes, including one reverse osmosis and one nanofiltration membrane, were modified by grafting PEGDE to their surfaces. Two different PEG molecular weights (200 and 1000) and treatment concentrations (1% (w/w) and 15% (w/w)) were studied. Water flux decreased and NaCl rejection increased with PEGDE graft density ([microgram]/cm2), although the largest changes were observed for low PEGDE graft densities. Surface properties including hydrophilicity, roughness and charge were minimally affected by surface modification. The fouling resistance of modified and unmodified membranes was compared in crossflow filtration studies using model foulant solutions consisting of either a charged surfactant or an oil in water emulsion containing n-decane and a charged surfactant. Several PEGDE-modified membranes demonstrated improved fouling resistance compared to unmodified membranes of similar initial water flux, possibly due to steric hindrance imparted by the PEG chains. Fouling resistance was higher for membranes modified with higher molecular weight PEG. Fouling was more extensive for feeds containing the cationic surfactant, potentially due to electrostatic attraction with the negatively charged membranes. However, fouling was also observed in the presence of the anionic surfactant, indicating hydrodynamic forces are also responsible for fouling. / text

Realizou-se, no Centro de Pesquisa de Peixes Tropicais (CEPTA/IBAMA), em Pirassununga-SP, um experimento com o objetivo de avaliar a influência da densidade de estocagem de peixes e do fluxo diferenciado de entrada e saída de água em viveiros de piscicultura nas características físicas e químicas da água; na estrutura (composição e densidade), biomassa, sucessão e diversidade de espécies da comunidade do fitoplâncton e na composição e densidade da comunidade do zooplâncton (considerando-se apenas grupo), procurando-se avaliar o balanço de entrada e saída de materiais em viveiros, enfatizando a concentração de nutrientes, comunidade planctônica, concentração de material em suspensão e clorofila a. Além disso, procurou-se quantificar os impactos da atividade da piscicultura nos recursos hídricos, demonstrando suas interações positivas e negativas com o ambiente. Os estudos foram desenvolvidos durante 60 dias, com coletas diárias inicialmente e a cada dois dias após o peixamento, analisando-se a temperatura, pH, condutividade elétrica da água, oxigênio dissolvido, material em suspensão, nutrientes, alcalinidade, dureza, cálcio, clorofila a, comunidade zooplanctônica e fitoplanctônica. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram o efeito do fluxo de água e da densidade de estocagem de peixes sobre as características físicas e químicas da água, observando-se a redução acentuada na concentração de oxigênio dissolvido na água (valores abaixo de 2 mg/l), aumento nas concentrações de fósforo e nitrogênio, material sem suspensão e clorofila a. Em conseqüência do aumento da concentração de nutrientes, principalmente de fósforo, ocorreu um aumento na biomassa e na densidade do fitoplâncton e na densidade do zooplâncton. A redução de oxigênio dissolvido na água, associado à outras variáveis, promoveu uma mortandade de peixes no tratamento T2. A divisão Chlorophyta foi dominante no fitoplâncton nos diferentes tratamentos e o padrão de sucessão observado foi Desmidiaceae&#8594Chlorococcales&#8594Cyanophyta. Em relação ao zooplâncton, Rotifera foi dominante na fase de enchimento, sendo posteriormente substituído por Cladocera e Copepoda. Nos diferentes tratamentos foi possível observar a interação indireta do efeito cascata. O sistema de piscicultura gerou cargas potencialmente poluidoras, sendo que a ração foi a responsável pelo incremento de nutrientes na água do efluente. Em média as concentrações de fósforo foram 36 vezes maior que o permitido por lei, enquadrando o efluente dos tratamentos como impróprio para serem lançados em rio de Classe 2. Considerando-se os resultados obtidos, recomenda-se o tratamento do efluente antes do lançamento no Rio Mogi-Guassu, corpo receptor e enquadrado como rio de Classe 2. / An experiment was conducted at the Tropical Fish Research Center (CEPTA, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil) to analyze the influence of the density of fish stocks and the differentiated water inflow and outflow in fishponds on the limnological characteristics of the water, its structure (composition and density), biomass fluctuations, succession and diversity of the phytoplankton and the composition and density of the zooplankton (considered only by group), in order to evaluate the balance of the entry and exit of biomass in fishponds, with emphasis on the concentration of nutrients, planktonic biomass (chlorophyll) and suspended matter. The experiment also aimed to quantify the impact of fishculture on hydric resources, demonstrating its positive and negative effects on the environment. The study was carried out for 60 days, with daily samples taken initially, and at two days\' interval after the introduction of the fish. The characteristics analyzed were water temperature, water load, dissolved oxygen, pH, conductivity, nutrients, suspended matter, chlorophyll a composition, density, diversity, abundance of phytoplankton, density and abundance of zooplankton. The results obtained demonstrated the effect of the water flow and the density of fish stocks on the physical and chemical characteristics of the water. An accentuated reduction was observed in dissolved oxygen concentrations (under 2 mg/l) and in increased phosphorous, nitrogen, organic matter and chlorophyll concentrations. The increased concentration of nutrients, mainly phosphorous, caused increased levels of phytoplankton and zooplankton biomass and density. The depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water, coupled to other variables, led to fish mortality under the T2 treatment. The Chlorophyta division predominated in the phytoplankton under the different treatments and the succession observed was a Desmidiaceae&#8594Chlorococcales&#8594Cyanophyta pattern. As for zooplancton, Rotifera predominated in the inflow phase and was later substituted by Cladocera and Copepoda. The indirect interaction of the cascade effect was observed during the different treatments. The fish culture system generated potentially polluting loads, with fish feed found to be responsible for the increased nutrient waste in the effluent. Phosphorus concentrations were, on average, 36 times higher than allowed by law, characterizing the effluent from the treatments as unsuitable to be cast into class 2 rivers. Based on the findings of this study and on environmental management strategies, it is recommended that the effluent be treated before the water is allowed to flow into the Class 2 recipient, the Mogi-Guassu river.

Les aménagements hydrauliques du Rhin ont fortement modifié le fonctionnement hydrologique des zones alluviales et provoqué la déconnexion de la plupart des bras du Rhin et des forêts alluviales. Des opérations de ré-inondation des secteurs déconnectés du fleuve ont été menées dans un objectif à la fois de rétention de crue et de submersion écologique qui devraient permettre à ces zones de retrouver tout ou partie de leur fonctionnalité. Le polder d’Erstein est un secteur forestier expérimental pour le suivi de l’impact des ré-inondations des zones alluviales. Les inondations du polder par les eaux de Rhin sont susceptibles d’en modifier le fonctionnement hydrologique (écoulements de surface, échanges nappe-rivière, recharge de la nappe …). L’objectif général de ces recherches est l’analyse et la quantification des transferts hydriques dans un aquifère poreux dans un contexte de ré-inondation. Pour ce faire nous avons réalisé des simulations numériques de l’écoulement à l’aide du code de calcul Feflow (Finite element subsurface flow system), qui ont été validées par les données hydrogéologiques mesurées in situ. Ce travail est organisé en cinq volets. Le point de départ est un état de l’art du fonctionnement, de la structure des zones alluviales et des mécanismes du transfert hydrique dans ces zones. La deuxième partie, fournit une présentation détaillée du site expérimental sur lequel une mission de suivi scientifique a débuté en 2003 et ainsi fourni une importante base de données hydrologiques (eaux de surface et eaux souterraines). Ces données ont servi à caractériser les écoulements d’eau en zone non saturée. La troisième partie est consacrée à la construction du modèle hydrodynamique. Compte tenu de l’importance du réseau des anciens bras du Rhin alimentées par la nappe existant à l’intérieur du polder, la question des échanges cours d’eau-nappe a été abordée. Hormis la recharge de la nappe par les cours d’eau, une part importante de l’infiltration d’eau depuis la surface du sol lors des inondations contribue à la recharge. Pour quantifier cette part, nous avons développé une approche pédologique originale afin de caractériser les hétérogénéités des sols par des paramètres hydrodynamiques. Ces hétérogénéités qui varient spatialement sur le polder ont une influence significative sur les flux verticaux et les temps de résidence de l’eau dans la zone non saturée. Les résultats obtenus en 1D ont ensuite été appliqués à toute la superficie du polder d’Erstein avec l’objectif de quantifier l’ensemble des écoulements à cette échelle. Différents scénarios d’hétérogénéité proposés se fondent sur une complexification de la structure de l’aquifère poreux, afin d’évaluer l’impact des hétérogénéités du sol sur le transfert hydrique dans le polder d’Erstein. / The hydraulic management of the Rhine has drastically modified the hydrological functioning of alluvial zones and caused the disconnection of most side-channels of the Rhine and alluvial forests. The re-flooding restoration works of the disconnected sectors are planned with objective of both the retention of flood and of ecological flooding which should allow these zones to recover all or part of their functionality.The Erstein polder is a forested experimental area for monitoring the impact of the alluvial zones re-flooding. The flooding of the Rhine plain may modify its hydrological functioning in terms of runoff, groundwater-river exchanges and groundwater recharge. Our general objective is to analyze and quantify water flux in an unsaturated porous aquifer. Therefore, based on the given hydraulic and hydrogeological conditions of the study site, we performed numerical flow simulations using the finite element model Feflow 5.3.This work is structured in five chapters. The starting point is a state of the art about the functioning and the structure of alluvial zones and the mechanisms of water flux in these areas. The second chapter presents the experimental site. A scientific monitoring mission has been implemented on the polder site and an extensive data base of hydrological measurements (surface and groundwater) was created. This data base was used to characterize the water flux in the unsaturated zone. The third chapter is devoted to the construction of the hydrodynamic model. Given the importance of the side channels network supplied by the existing groundwater inside the polder, the water exchange between surface water and groundwater was discussed. Apart from the groundwater recharge by streams, a significant infiltration of water from the soil surface during flooding contributes to groundwater recharge. To quantify this part, we developed an original approach in order to characterize the heterogeneities of soils using hydrodynamic model parameters. These heterogeneities that vary spatially on the polder have a significant influence on the vertical flow and the residence time of water from the ground surface to the groundwater. The results obtained in 1D were then used to model the influence of soil heterogeneities of the entire area of the study site on water infiltration during inundation event and groundwater recharge. Different scenarios of heterogeneity were used to render the structure of the porous aquifer progressively more complex in order to evaluate the impact of the heterogeneities on water flux in the vadose zone of the Erstein polder.

L’objectif est la construction numérique d’un modèle 3D régional de la plaine de Sidi Bouzid permettant la quantification du transfert hydrique et du rôle des crues sur le processus de recharge. Des simulations numériques de l’écoulement ont été réalisées à l’aide de Feflow et validées par des données mesurées in situ. Une conceptualisation des paramètres d’entrée a été réalisée afin de contourner l’absence de données mesurées. L'hétérogénéité de la zone non saturée a un impact significatif sur la variation du flux vertical et la propagation du front d’humidité. Les résultats obtenus en 1D ont été spatialisés à l’échelle de la plaine avec l’objectif de quantifier l’ensemble des flux d’écoulements. L’originalité réside, d’une part, dans la détermination des conditions aux limites appliquées à la surface du sol à partir des hydrogrammes des crues enregistrés et, d’autre part, au modèle conceptuel limitant l’évaporation. Le modèle hydrodynamique a mis en évidence que le bilan hydrique est fortement excédentaire. Les simulations de l’écoulement ont montré que l’approche des épandages de crues au niveau des périmètres surestime la recharge artificielle de la nappe. / The aim of this study is to set up a 3D regional model to quantify water flux in unsaturated-saturated zones and the role of floods on the recharge process. Therefore, numerical flow simulations were conducted using the finite element Feflow that will be validated by measured data. A conceptualization of input parameters was carried out to overcome the absence of measured data. The heterogeneity of the vadose zone have a significant impact on the variation of the vertical flow, the residence time and the propagation of wetting front in the unsaturated zone. The results obtained in 1D were then used to quantify groundwater recharge of the entire area of the study site. The original approach is to derive the time-dependent hydraulic boundary condition of water level at the soil surface of the spreading perimeters by measured flood hydrographs and to develop a limited conceptual model of water uptake by evaporation. The hydrodynamic model showed that the water balance is very important. Flow simulations have shown that the perimeter flooding approach overestimates the artificial recharge of the aquifer.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are hydrophobic substances that readily sorb to organic matter in particles and colloids instead of being freely dissolved in the water phase. This sorption affects the bio­availability and environmental transport of the POPs. The major part of this thesis concerns the role of sediments as secondary sources of POPs. As the primary emissions decrease, contaminated sediments where POPs have accumulated can become the main source of contamination. If the contaminated sediment by time becomes covered with cleaner layers, the POPs are buried and no longer in contact with the aquatic environment. Experiments in this thesis showed, however, that new invading species can alter the sediment-water dynamics as a result of their bioturbation, i.e. mixing of sediment particles and pore-water. Marenzelleria spp., invading species in the Baltic Sea that burrow deeper than native species, were found to increase the remobilization of buried contaminants. The sediment-to-water flux was inversely related to the burial depth (2-10 cm) of the POP congeners (polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers) and also inversely related to the hydrophobicity of the congener. The flux was therefore most pronounced for less hydrophobic contaminants, which was linked to the bioirrigating behaviour of these species. Marenzelleria spp. also accumulated the buried POPs and increased concentrations in surface sedi­ment. Contaminants previously considered buried at a ’safe’ depth can thus be remobilized as a result of the invasion of Marenzelleria spp. in the Baltic Sea. One method to decrease the remobilization of contaminants from sediments is ’capping’, i.e. a layer of clean material is placed as a cap on the sediment. By amending the cap with active materials, which sequester the POPs and decrease their availability, thinner layers can be used (’active capping’ or ’thin-layer capping’). Results from an experiment with thin-layer capping using different active materials (activated carbon (AC) and kraft lignin) showed that both the sediment-to-water flux and the bioaccumulation by benthic species of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and octachlorostyrene (OCS) decreased with increased thick­ness of the cap layer (0.5-5 cm). Amendments with active materials further increased the cap efficiency. AC was more efficient than kraft lignin, and a 3 cm cap with 3.3% AC reduced the flux and bioaccumulation with ~90%. The reduction of the sediment-to-water flux was inversely related to the hydrophobicity of the POP, and reductions in the flux had similar magnitudes as reductions in the concentration in deep-burrowing polychaetes, demonstrating the importance of bioturbation for sediment-to-water transport. In a one-year study on the levels of PCDD/Fs, PCBs, and HCB in a coastal area of the Baltic Sea, the correlations between the POP levels and the levels of particles and organic carbon in the water were found to differ for POPs of different structure and hydrophobicity. The levels of PCDD/Fs decreased to one third in May, which could be related to the increased sedimentation, i.e. water-to-sediment transport, during spring bloom.