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As perdas de água em sistemas de abastecimento apresentam-se como um dos maiores desafios das operadoras de água em todo o mundo. Nos últimos 12 anos os níveis de perda de água na distribuição no Brasil têm se mantido próximo à 40%, valor bem superior quando comparado a outras regiões do globo. Frente ao atual cenário de crise hídrica e aumento da demanda da água, as ações de controle de perdas requerem atenção. No cenário nacional, as bacias hidrográficas dos rios Piracicaba Capivari e Jundiaí destacam-se pelo empenho dos Comitês PCJ que têm atuado junto aos municípios para controlar os níveis de perdas da área. A crítica situação da disponibilidade hídrica nas bacias, o potencial de redução da pressão sobre os recursos hídricos e o ganho econômico se os níveis de perdas forem reduzidos reforçam a premência na adoção de práticas de controle de perdas eficientes. Nesta perspectiva, a presente pesquisa buscou identificar, no contexto das operadoras das bacias PCJ, quais práticas de controle de perdas de água na distribuição estão associadas ao desempenho considerado superior no controle, calculando o nível de perdas de água dos municípios e explorando quais práticas de controle são empregadas pelas operadoras. A primeira etapa metodológica correspondeu a aplicação da técnica de benchmarking junto as operadoras em estudo para avaliar o desempenho das mesmas no controle de perdas, incluindo a seleção de indicador, formulação de questionário de dados operacionais, coleta de dados online, análise da credibilidade dos dados e cálculo do nível de perdas de água de cada município com o ranqueamento dos mesmos. A segunda etapa foi direcionada ao levantamento e análise das práticas de controle de perdas empregadas pelas operadoras das bacias, mediante a aplicação in loco do questionário de práticas, elaborado a partir de revisão bibliográfica. Na terceira etapa, utilizando ferramentas estatísticas, as práticas de controle analisadas foram cruzadas com as categorias de desempenho, superior e inferior, identificando quais práticas de controle estão associadas as classes de desempenhos. A amostra final de municípios analisados incluiu 41, dos 70 membros dos Comitês, cujos dados se enquadraram nos níveis de credibilidade estabelecidos para fins de comparação de desempenho. A aplicação do benchmarking possibilitou analisar os desempenhos das operadoras que atuam na área, comparando os níveis de perdas de água e identificando quais municípios necessitam de urgência atenção em ações de controle. Testes de comparação de média, conduzidos com o produto do benchmarking evidenciaram que há diferenças significativas nos níveis de perdas de água quando considerado o porte do município, natureza jurídica da operadora e presença de favelas. A análise das práticas de controle empregadas apontou o empenho das operadoras da área em controlar as perdas de água, concentrando ações em trocas de rede, setorização e macromedição, sendo verificada diferenças significativas no índice médio de perdas quando uma prática é ou não aplicada. A análise de associação e correspondência indicaram que 24 práticas estão associadas e impactam os níveis de perdas de água. Salvo este aspecto, é imprescindível reforçar a importância do mix de práticas na obtenção de resultados mais eficientes e satisfatórios. Com caráter exploratório, as assertivas desse estudo podem nortear as ações de controle de outras operadoras sendo fundamentais estudos de custo benefício para definir quais práticas produzirão resultados de redução mais efetivos. / The water loss in supply system have presented as one of the biggest challenges of water companies around the world. In the last 12 years the water loss levels in Brazilians distribution systems have remained close to 40%, level higher than other areas in the globe. Face of the water crisis and increasing water demand, the actions to control the water loss require attention. In the national context, the Piracicaba, Capivari and Jundiai river basins have focus by the Committees efforts that have been acting along with the cities to control the water loss levels in the area. The critical situation of water availability in the river basins, the reduction potential on hydric resources and the financial gain, if the water loss levels have lowered, enhance the urgency to adopt efficient control practices of water loss. Accordingly, the present research has searched to identify, in the context of PCJ river basins water companies, which water loss control practices are associated with the higher performance, measuring the citys water loss levels and exploiting which control practices have applied by the water companies. The first methodological step was the application of the benchmarking technique to measure the performance in water loss control, including indicator choice, questionnaire formulation of operational data, online data collection, data reliability analysis and determination of cities water loss levels, with ranking of this. The second step had directed to the gathering and analysis of control practices adopted by the companies in the area, by applying the practices questionnaire, elaborated as of bibliographic review, in loco. In the third step, using statistic tools, the control practices had crossed with the performance in water loss control, higher and lower, identifying which practices have associated with the companies performance. The final sample analyzed included 41 cities, of the 70 PCJ Committees members, that data had fit in the reliability levels established for performance comparison purposes. The benchmarking application had enabled to analyze the companies\' performance comparing the water loss levels and identifying which cities need urgent attention in control practices. Testes of means comparison had emphasized that there are significant differences in the water loss levels when deemed the city size, company\'s legal nature and presence of slumbs. The control practices analysis had indicated the company\'s efforts to control the water loss, focusing in network exchange, district meters\' areas, macromediation system, been checked significant differences in the water loss average index when a practice is adopting or not. The association and correspondence analysis had indicated that 24 practices area associated and affect the water loss levels. Barring this aspect, is essential to strengthen the importance of control practices mix to achieve efficient and satisfactory results. With an exploratory profile, the results of this research can guide the control actions of others companies, been essential cost-benefit studies to establish which practices will generate reduction results more effectives.

O presente trabalho aborda os conceitos que envolvem as perdas no sistema de distribuição de água e os diferentes indicadores de perdas existentes, utilizados como um dos principais instrumentos de apoio à gestão nos sistemas de abastecimentos de água. A revisão bibliográfica apresenta histórico dos trabalhos referentes ao controle e redução de perdas que tem sido desenvolvidos no Brasil e em outros países. Mostra a diversidade de indicadores de perdas existentes e os estudos e discussões incessantes na busca de sua padronização, coordenados pela International Water Association (IWA). Também trata de importantes questões relativas ao tema da dissertação, tais como: a elaboração do Balanço Hídrico e os limites de incertezas de suas variáveis; e as iniciativas existentes ao redor do mundo relacionadas ao uso eficiente de energia e sua interface entre a redução de perdas em sistemas de abastecimento de água. Na segunda etapa do trabalho, foram elaborados passo a passo os Balanços Hídricos de três setores de abastecimento da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo (RMSP) com características distintas entre si. Em razão da dificuldade de medições de alguns volumes de entrada dos Balanços Hídricos, recorreu-se à alternativa de calculá-los através de estimativas, cujos valores padrões foram pesquisados na bibliografia existente. Devido a isso, os fluxos dos Balanços Hídricos estudados apresentaram faixas de valores, retratando os limites de incertezas a que eles estão submetidos. Compararam-se os Balanços Hídricos dos três setores de abastecimento, avaliando-se suas incertezas, analisando-se seus resultados e recomendando-se onde podem ser direcionadas as ações para o controle e redução, sejam para as perdas reais, sejam para as perdas aparentes. Por fim, ressalta-se que por se tratar de tema correlacionado às dissertações desenvolvidas por Galvão (2007), Melato (2010), Oliveira (2011) e Palo (2010), este estudo serve, portanto, como uma continuidade desses trabalhos. / This project has the purpose of treat the conceptions involving losses in water distribution systems and different performance indicators, used as a major instrument of management support systems in water supplies. Bibliographic review presents a historic of the works on the control and reduction of water losses that have been developed in Brazil and other countries. It shows the diversity of existing indicators of water losses and incessant studies and discussions in the search for its standardization, coordinated by the International Water Association (IWA). It also deals with important issues related to the subject of the dissertation, such as the elaboration of the water balance and the limits of uncertainty of its variables, and the existing initiatives around the world related to the energy efficiency and its interface with the reduction of losses in water supply systems. In the second stage of the work, the Water Balances of three different supply sectors of the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo were developed step by step. Because of the difficulty of measurements of some volumes of incoming Water Balance, one resorted to the alternative of calculating them through estimates, whose default values were researched in existing literature. Due to this, the flow of Water Balance study showed ranges of values, depicting the limits of uncertainty to which they are submitted. The Water Balance of three supply sectors were compared, evaluating their uncertainties, analyzing their results and recommending where actions should be directed to the control and reduction whether they are real or apparent losses. It is important to say that since it is correlated themes to dissertations developed by Galvão (2007), Melato (2010), Oliveira (2011) and Palo (2010), will represent, therefore, as continuity to their works.

O polietileno surgiu em 1898 e logo já começou a ser utilizado como conduíte e isolante. Desde então este material vem ganhando muito espaço no mercado de tubulações, seja no saneamento, mineração, indústrias ou no segmento de petróleo e gás. Seu tipo mais usado é o Polietileno de Alta Densidade (PEAD), que apesar de já ser comumente encontrado em adutoras, emissários e ramais prediais, somente nos últimos anos passou a ser utilizado de maneira mais abrangente nas redes de distribuição de água, se tornando um aliado importante no combate aos altos índices de perdas reais. No Brasil, somente nos últimos anos que a presença de tubulações de PEAD em redes de distribuição de água potável se tornou mais comum. Contudo, é possível identificar cenários de aplicação do PEAD em sistemas de abastecimento de água já relativamente consolidados, como é o caso do Departamento Municipal de Água e Esgotos (DMAE) de Porto Alegre, que utiliza o material há 25 anos, a Companhia de Saneamento Básico do Estado de São Paulo (Sabesp), onde desde 2009 a Diretoria Metropolitana vem utilizando o PEAD em novas aplicações em redes e a Odebrecht Ambiental da cidade de Limeira, que utiliza tubos deste material desde 2007. Através de análises de custos de implantação, operação e manutenção, de amostragens da condição de tubulações em operação, da evolução de índice de perdas e de entrevistas com as equipes de operação e planejamento, é possível verificar que realmente as tubulações de PEAD auxiliam no combate às perdas reais e na otimização da operação e eficiência das prestadoras de serviços de distribuição de água potável, no sentido de diminuir o tempo de intervenção de redes, os custos de manutenção e a frequência de arrebentamento e vazamentos nas redes de abastecimento. / Polyethylene appeared in 1898 and soon started been used as conduit and insulating material. Since then, the material has been gaining a lot of space in the pipes market in sanitation, mining, industries and oil & gas production. The most used type is High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), which despite being commonly found in water mains, emissaries and communication pipes, only in recent years began to be used more widely in water distribution networks, becoming an important ally in the fight against high rates of real water losses. In Brazil, only in recent years the use of HDPE pipes has become more common in public water distribution networks. However, it is possible to identify HDPE application cases in relatively consolidated water supply distribution networks, such as the Departamento Municipal de Água e Esgotos (DMAE) of Porto Alegre, which have used the material for 25 years; the Companhia de Saneamento Básico do Estado de São Paulo (Sabesp), where since 2009 the Metropolitan Unit has been using HDPE in new applications in network pipes and Odebrecht Ambiental, in Limeira city, which uses this material in water pipelines since 2007. Through research of implementation, operation and maintenance costs, sampling the condition of pipes in operation, analysis the real losses indicators and interviews with the operations and planning teams, it is possible to conclude HDPE pipes contribute to reduction of real losses and optimization of the operation and efficiency of the providers of drinking water distribution services, decreasing maintenance time and costs.

O presente trabalho investiga o efeito da redução de pressão em rede de distribuição de água, provocada pela instalação de válvulas redutoras de pressão (VPRs), no consumo médio total medido em ligações de água, localizadas em áreas sob influência daquele equipamento. Foi feito um levantamento no estado da arte em gestão de sistemas de abastecimento de água, com ênfase no controle de perdas, focado na gestão de pressão. Para se avaliar a possível redução de consumo, foi desenvolvida uma metodologia estatística, baseada em critérios de filtragem de dados de amostra e em testes paramétricos de hipóteses. O estudo de caso foi feito na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo (RMSP), utilizando sistema de informações geográficas (SIG), que permitiu o relacionamento de limites geográficos, com informações de consumo, através da integração com um sistema de informações comerciais, onde foi possível a obtenção de dados de consumos individuais, de ligações de água. Foram comparados os consumos, antes e depois da implementação de VRPs, com a correspondente redução de pressão, em áreas controladas por VRP e em áreas testemunha (sem influência da redução de pressão), através da realização de testes paramétricos de hipóteses. Foram, ainda, comparadas a variação no consumo médio das áreas de VRP, com a variação no consumo médio das áreas testemunha. Os resultados obtidos indicam que, embora tenha ocorrido uma tendência de redução no consumo de algumas áreas pesquisadas, esta redução não pode ser atribuída à implementação das VRPs. / The following study investigates reduction in average costumers\' consumption due to pressure reduction in water distribution systems, trough installation of pressure reducing valves (PRVs). A research on the state of art on water distributions systems management techniques was carried out, emphasizing water-loss control aspects, with focus on pressure management techniques. A statistical methodology based upon data filtering criteria and on statistical tests of hypothesis was developed to assess a possible effect in the water consumption reduction, for sample areas water consumption data. A case study was carried out in the Metropolitan Region of Sao Paulo (MRSP) using a Geographic Information System (GIS). Relationship between the geographical study areas limits and the costumers\' water consumption information was made by through use of GIS tools. Information on individual customers\' water connections were retrieved from a commercial information data base system. Comparisons between average water consumption before and after PRVs initial operation were carried out. Same comparisons were applied in testimony areas (water distribution areas not submitted to water pressure reduction), in similar conditions to PRVs controlled areas. These comparisons were verified trough statistical parametric tests of hypothesis. The results showed that, despite of a tendency of lowering average water consumption in some of the researched areas it was not confirmed the influence of water pressure reduction on it.

<p>Aim: To examine the reaction of extreme preterm infants with regarding to body temperature and transepidermal water loss during skin-to-skin care according to Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC) during the infant’s first week of life. Method: This was a descriptive quantitatively designed study, which was a pilot study within the framework of a larger project. Nine children, with a median gestational age of 24.91 weeks, were examined by measuring body temperature (axilla and skin temperature) as well as transepidermal water loss before, during and after KMC. Results: The study showed that skin temperature tended to rise during KMC, especially for those children who were nursed with KMC for more than 60 minutes. Eight out of nine children had, after completing KMC, a normal axilla temperature. As was expected, transepidermal water loss was elevated when measured both pre and post test. Despite this, the children showed normal body temperature. Conclusion: The results of the study support that KMC can create a micro-climate that, for at least one hour, makes it possible for even extreme preterm infants to maintain a body temperature within the normal range during their first week of life.</p>

<p>While constituting a well functioning interface with the aqueous environment in utero, the skin offers a poor barrier after very preterm birth. As a result, transepidermal water loss (TEWL) is high, a fact which has important clinical consequences in these infants. To investigate the transport of water through perinatal skin and the potential role of aquaporin (AQP), a water channel protein, in this process, we determined TEWL in a group of extremely preterm infants, and in an experimental rat model we analyzed the expression and distribution of AQP in perinatal skin in relation to TEWL, skin surface hydration and water content. The effects of antenatal corticosteroids (ANS) and of restricted intake of fluids and nutrients on barrier characteristics of the perinatal skin and its AQP expression were also studied.</p><p>In infants born at 24 and 25 weeks of gestation TEWL was very high in the first days after birth and decreased with increasing postnatal age. At a postnatal age of 4 weeks, TEWL was still twice as high as previously reported in infants born at a gestational age of 25-27 weeks and four times higher than in infants born at term. In the rat model, immunohistochemical analysis revealed that AQP1 and AQP3 are abundantly expressed in the skin. AQP1 was expressed exclusively in dermal capillaries and AQP3 in basal layers of the epidermis. AQP1 and AQP3 mRNA as assessed by semiquantitative RT-PCR was higher in fetal than in adult skin. As in infants, TEWL and skin surface hydration were inversely related to gestational age in the rat. In preterm rat pups exposed to ANS, TEWL and skin surface hydration were lower than in unexposed controls, and AQP3 expression was selectively induced by ANS. In term newborn rat pups, restriction of fluid and nutrient intake resulted in a higher skin water content and higher TEWL early after birth, while at an age of 7 days TEWL was lower in fasting rat pups than in controls, although skin water content was still higher.</p><p>To conclude, TEWL is very high in extremely preterm infants early after birth and then decreases at a slower rate than previously reported for a group of slightly more mature infants. </p><p>This is the first time that the distribution and gene expression of AQP1 and AQP3 have been demonstrated in perinatal skin. The localization and expression of AQP in the skin might indicate that these water channels are involved in the regulation of skin hydration and transepidermal water transport in the fetus and newborn infant.</p>

While constituting a well functioning interface with the aqueous environment in utero, the skin offers a poor barrier after very preterm birth. As a result, transepidermal water loss (TEWL) is high, a fact which has important clinical consequences in these infants. To investigate the transport of water through perinatal skin and the potential role of aquaporin (AQP), a water channel protein, in this process, we determined TEWL in a group of extremely preterm infants, and in an experimental rat model we analyzed the expression and distribution of AQP in perinatal skin in relation to TEWL, skin surface hydration and water content. The effects of antenatal corticosteroids (ANS) and of restricted intake of fluids and nutrients on barrier characteristics of the perinatal skin and its AQP expression were also studied. In infants born at 24 and 25 weeks of gestation TEWL was very high in the first days after birth and decreased with increasing postnatal age. At a postnatal age of 4 weeks, TEWL was still twice as high as previously reported in infants born at a gestational age of 25-27 weeks and four times higher than in infants born at term. In the rat model, immunohistochemical analysis revealed that AQP1 and AQP3 are abundantly expressed in the skin. AQP1 was expressed exclusively in dermal capillaries and AQP3 in basal layers of the epidermis. AQP1 and AQP3 mRNA as assessed by semiquantitative RT-PCR was higher in fetal than in adult skin. As in infants, TEWL and skin surface hydration were inversely related to gestational age in the rat. In preterm rat pups exposed to ANS, TEWL and skin surface hydration were lower than in unexposed controls, and AQP3 expression was selectively induced by ANS. In term newborn rat pups, restriction of fluid and nutrient intake resulted in a higher skin water content and higher TEWL early after birth, while at an age of 7 days TEWL was lower in fasting rat pups than in controls, although skin water content was still higher. To conclude, TEWL is very high in extremely preterm infants early after birth and then decreases at a slower rate than previously reported for a group of slightly more mature infants. This is the first time that the distribution and gene expression of AQP1 and AQP3 have been demonstrated in perinatal skin. The localization and expression of AQP in the skin might indicate that these water channels are involved in the regulation of skin hydration and transepidermal water transport in the fetus and newborn infant.

Water conservation is one of the important policy concerns. However, most water conservation practices have focused primarily on reducing use by customers. Since a large amount of water lost in supply systems causes water providers to lose money, resources, and reliability, and the current passive approach cannot deal with water losses effectively, a proactive approach is necessary for water-loss management. The goal of this study is to help policymakers and water utilities develop strategies that proactively solve water losses. To develop strategies for water-loss management, it is essential to identify key factors that determine the level of water losses as well as the factors that encourage the adoption of the innovative control practices. Using three different datasets and statistical methodology, this study analyzed the factors associated with water losses and utilities responses to the problems. Based on case studies, this study explored managers perceptions about the adoption of water-loss management and identified organizational characteristics that may influence managements decisions to adopt such strategies. Operational and Maintenance (O and M) factors had the most significant impacts on water losses. In particular, system size, represented by total production or population served, and infrastructure rehabilitation were crucial factors. The effects of some internal factors on water losses were predicted but those of several internal factors were rather unclear and relatively complicated. This study confirmed that utilities were more likely to be motivated to combat water losses if certain external conditions, such as higher water demand, limited resource availability, and institutional pressure exist. This study found several internal and external factors associated with the adoption of proactive water-loss management; however, internal factors seemed to dominate in the decision-making processes over such adoption. The utilities that have already adopted proactive water-loss management seem to be more amenable to adopt new practices because they have certain characteristics and their managers have more positive perspectives. The findings suggest several policy implications and recommendations for the water industry. Finally, this study discussed limitations of the study, and suggestions for further studies.