In order for an economy to survive and thrive it requires resources. Water is a resource that not only the economy is dependent on but also ecological and human communities. The deteriorated state of South African rivers suggests the intensive use of the country’s freshwater reserves by the population and industry. Such a source of freshwater is the Wonderfonteinspruit. It flows through an area that requires water for gold mining that has taken place in the area for more than 120 years. Furthermore, the Wonderfonteinspruit runs past communities such as Bekkersdal and eventually forms part of the source waters for the Boskop Dam, the main drinking water reservoir for Potchefstroom. Literature suggests that the Wonderfonteinspruit is impacted by anthropogenic activities, in particular impacts associated with both historical and current gold mining activities. The Wonderfonteinspruit has its origin in the Tudor Dam in Krugersdorp (now Mogale City), and then flows into Donaldson Dam from where it is piped in a 32 km long pipeline, before its confluence with the Mooi River which subsequently flows into the Boskop Dam. The study area specifically focuses on the Upper Wonderfonteinspruit from just downstream of the Donaldson Dam to just upstream of the dam. The study area was selected due to the close proximity of the Donaldson Dam to the community of Bekkersdal which formed the second part of the investigation for this thesis. Bekkersdal is primarily a mining community that has historically faced issues with sufficient land provision, housing, unemployment and service delivery. It is located in the Gauteng Province and falls under the jurisdiction of Westonaria Local Municipality. Recent protests by community members have occurred due to the lack of service delivery and inappropriate development of infrastructure with regards to water services. Due to the close proximity of Bekkersdal to the Wonderfonteinspruit (as it is situated on the border of the Donaldson Dam) the community provided an ideal study area to explore the use of the river by the community. In order to determine the relationship between the Wonderfonteinspruit and the community of Bekkersdal the study comprised two parts: during the first part of the study, the ecological state of the Wonderfonteinspruit was determined through the evaluation of the quality of water, sediment and biota within the river; while in the second part an assessment of Bekkersdal (both formal and informal sections) was undertaken through the use of questionnaires in order to determine past, current and future water use of both municipal water and water sourced from the Wonderfonteinspruit. The final outcomes of both the environmental and social assessments were then compared with national and international standards. Water quality assessment of the Wonderfonteinspruit was done by assessing the following: - in situ water quality parameters (such as pH, total dissolved solids and dissolved oxygen) - metal and ionic composition analysis of water samples using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrophotometry (ICP-MS) - nutrient loads using a spectrophotometer and Spectroquant® test kits - bacteriological quality by determining presence of total coliforms and faecal coliforms through the growth of bacterial cultures on M-ENDO and m-FC agar plates - the Physico-chemical Driver Assessment Index (PAI) was applied according to DWAF 2008 - statistical relevance between sites and results through principal component analysis (PCA) Finally, these results, where applicable, were compared to both national and international standards for human and ecological use. The results indicated that the water quality levels exceeded the guideline values of national and international standards for the following uses: drinking water, certain industrial activities, watering of certain livestock and crop types as well as aquaculture. It was also found that the water quality was acceptable for certain activities (e.g. recreation) only if precautions and further analysis are performed. The guideline values of national water quality standards for ecological status were also exceeded, while the PAI results indicated that the ecological category (EC) for the Wonderfonteinspruit is a D which indicates that the state of the water quality in terms of the ecology is fair. The sediment quality of the Wonderfonteinspruit was determined by ICP-MS. The metal composition of the sediment was compared to that of other rivers and the following indices were applied: enrichment factor (EF), contamination factor (CF), pollution load index (PLI) and geo-accumulation index (Igeo). It was found that the sediment composition is comparable to that of other rivers impacted by gold mining and that uranium, cobalt and nickel enriched the sediment according to the indices. Biotic indicators that were assessed included fish, diatoms and invertebrates. The fish health assessment index (HAI) was applied to fish caught in the Donaldson Dam. The muscle tissue was also removed and its metal concentration was determined by ICP-MS. Thereafter, the edibility of the fish muscle tissue was determined and the following indices were applied: condition factor (CF), hepatosomatic index (HSI), gonadosomatic index (GSI) and spleen somatic index (SSI). The diatom community composition was assessed by applying the Biological Diatom Index (BDI), Specific Pollution Sensitivity Index (SPI) and the percentage pollution tolerant valves (%PTV). The Macroinvertebrate Response Assessment Index (MIRAI) was applied in order to determine the state of the macroinvertebrate community. The fish assessment indicated that arsenic contamination may negatively impact the health of consumers. Diatom indices indicated that the EC of the Wonderfonteinspruit is a D/E which indicates poor water quality; likewise, this is supported by the MIRAI results as the EC for MIRAI was a D which indicates that the river is largely modified. The investigation into the water use of the Bekkersdal community, with a special focus on the use of the Wonderfonteinspruit, was achieved through the use of questionnaires that were distributed in both formal and informal sections in Bekkersdal. The research forms part of a larger Integrative Multidisciplinary study and was given ethical clearance under the NRF Community Engagement Project (see Ethical Clearance: no. FH-BE-2013-0014. The National Research Fund (NRF) provided the funding for the research, the views expressed is that of the author and not those of the NRF. The aim of the questionnaire was to determine the following aspects in terms of the community of Bekkersdal: - Demographic details, such as language preference, employment status and age distribution. - Current water use practices . - Use of the Wonderfonteinspruit. - Future water use of the Wonderfonteinspruit. - Water quality perceptions of the Wonderfonteinspruit. - Field notes that included any relevant observations of the fieldworkers. The unemployment rate of the Bekkersdal community was found to be high (78.20%) and 86.40% of the residents are South African citizens. The community relies heavily on municipal provision of sources of water with 100% of the respondents indicating that it is their primary source of water. However, several issues were identified in terms of municipal water supply in the community. Some 10.14% of the residents indicated that they make regular use of the Wonderfonteinspruit (in particular the Donaldson Dam) most often for drinking water, laundry and washing of cars, etc. Regarding the state of the Wonderfonteinspruit, the overall viewpoint of the Bekkersdal community was that it is largely polluted with sewage, litter and mining waste. However, some 87.80% of the residents expressed their willingness to participate in environmental clean-up initiatives in their area. The link between the ecological state of the Wonderfonteinspruit and human health and wellbeing was explored through the use of spider diagrams where rank scores were assigned to both index results and human water quality use categories. These were compared and it was found that ecological indicators are more sensitive than human water quality use scores and therefore can aid in acting as early detection indicators of possible negative impacts on human health and wellbeing. / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

In order for an economy to survive and thrive it requires resources. Water is a resource that not only the economy is dependent on but also ecological and human communities. The deteriorated state of South African rivers suggests the intensive use of the country’s freshwater reserves by the population and industry. Such a source of freshwater is the Wonderfonteinspruit. It flows through an area that requires water for gold mining that has taken place in the area for more than 120 years. Furthermore, the Wonderfonteinspruit runs past communities such as Bekkersdal and eventually forms part of the source waters for the Boskop Dam, the main drinking water reservoir for Potchefstroom. Literature suggests that the Wonderfonteinspruit is impacted by anthropogenic activities, in particular impacts associated with both historical and current gold mining activities. The Wonderfonteinspruit has its origin in the Tudor Dam in Krugersdorp (now Mogale City), and then flows into Donaldson Dam from where it is piped in a 32 km long pipeline, before its confluence with the Mooi River which subsequently flows into the Boskop Dam. The study area specifically focuses on the Upper Wonderfonteinspruit from just downstream of the Donaldson Dam to just upstream of the dam. The study area was selected due to the close proximity of the Donaldson Dam to the community of Bekkersdal which formed the second part of the investigation for this thesis. Bekkersdal is primarily a mining community that has historically faced issues with sufficient land provision, housing, unemployment and service delivery. It is located in the Gauteng Province and falls under the jurisdiction of Westonaria Local Municipality. Recent protests by community members have occurred due to the lack of service delivery and inappropriate development of infrastructure with regards to water services. Due to the close proximity of Bekkersdal to the Wonderfonteinspruit (as it is situated on the border of the Donaldson Dam) the community provided an ideal study area to explore the use of the river by the community. In order to determine the relationship between the Wonderfonteinspruit and the community of Bekkersdal the study comprised two parts: during the first part of the study, the ecological state of the Wonderfonteinspruit was determined through the evaluation of the quality of water, sediment and biota within the river; while in the second part an assessment of Bekkersdal (both formal and informal sections) was undertaken through the use of questionnaires in order to determine past, current and future water use of both municipal water and water sourced from the Wonderfonteinspruit. The final outcomes of both the environmental and social assessments were then compared with national and international standards. Water quality assessment of the Wonderfonteinspruit was done by assessing the following: - in situ water quality parameters (such as pH, total dissolved solids and dissolved oxygen) - metal and ionic composition analysis of water samples using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrophotometry (ICP-MS) - nutrient loads using a spectrophotometer and Spectroquant® test kits - bacteriological quality by determining presence of total coliforms and faecal coliforms through the growth of bacterial cultures on M-ENDO and m-FC agar plates - the Physico-chemical Driver Assessment Index (PAI) was applied according to DWAF 2008 - statistical relevance between sites and results through principal component analysis (PCA) Finally, these results, where applicable, were compared to both national and international standards for human and ecological use. The results indicated that the water quality levels exceeded the guideline values of national and international standards for the following uses: drinking water, certain industrial activities, watering of certain livestock and crop types as well as aquaculture. It was also found that the water quality was acceptable for certain activities (e.g. recreation) only if precautions and further analysis are performed. The guideline values of national water quality standards for ecological status were also exceeded, while the PAI results indicated that the ecological category (EC) for the Wonderfonteinspruit is a D which indicates that the state of the water quality in terms of the ecology is fair. The sediment quality of the Wonderfonteinspruit was determined by ICP-MS. The metal composition of the sediment was compared to that of other rivers and the following indices were applied: enrichment factor (EF), contamination factor (CF), pollution load index (PLI) and geo-accumulation index (Igeo). It was found that the sediment composition is comparable to that of other rivers impacted by gold mining and that uranium, cobalt and nickel enriched the sediment according to the indices. Biotic indicators that were assessed included fish, diatoms and invertebrates. The fish health assessment index (HAI) was applied to fish caught in the Donaldson Dam. The muscle tissue was also removed and its metal concentration was determined by ICP-MS. Thereafter, the edibility of the fish muscle tissue was determined and the following indices were applied: condition factor (CF), hepatosomatic index (HSI), gonadosomatic index (GSI) and spleen somatic index (SSI). The diatom community composition was assessed by applying the Biological Diatom Index (BDI), Specific Pollution Sensitivity Index (SPI) and the percentage pollution tolerant valves (%PTV). The Macroinvertebrate Response Assessment Index (MIRAI) was applied in order to determine the state of the macroinvertebrate community. The fish assessment indicated that arsenic contamination may negatively impact the health of consumers. Diatom indices indicated that the EC of the Wonderfonteinspruit is a D/E which indicates poor water quality; likewise, this is supported by the MIRAI results as the EC for MIRAI was a D which indicates that the river is largely modified. The investigation into the water use of the Bekkersdal community, with a special focus on the use of the Wonderfonteinspruit, was achieved through the use of questionnaires that were distributed in both formal and informal sections in Bekkersdal. The research forms part of a larger Integrative Multidisciplinary study and was given ethical clearance under the NRF Community Engagement Project (see Ethical Clearance: no. FH-BE-2013-0014. The National Research Fund (NRF) provided the funding for the research, the views expressed is that of the author and not those of the NRF. The aim of the questionnaire was to determine the following aspects in terms of the community of Bekkersdal: - Demographic details, such as language preference, employment status and age distribution. - Current water use practices . - Use of the Wonderfonteinspruit. - Future water use of the Wonderfonteinspruit. - Water quality perceptions of the Wonderfonteinspruit. - Field notes that included any relevant observations of the fieldworkers. The unemployment rate of the Bekkersdal community was found to be high (78.20%) and 86.40% of the residents are South African citizens. The community relies heavily on municipal provision of sources of water with 100% of the respondents indicating that it is their primary source of water. However, several issues were identified in terms of municipal water supply in the community. Some 10.14% of the residents indicated that they make regular use of the Wonderfonteinspruit (in particular the Donaldson Dam) most often for drinking water, laundry and washing of cars, etc. Regarding the state of the Wonderfonteinspruit, the overall viewpoint of the Bekkersdal community was that it is largely polluted with sewage, litter and mining waste. However, some 87.80% of the residents expressed their willingness to participate in environmental clean-up initiatives in their area. The link between the ecological state of the Wonderfonteinspruit and human health and wellbeing was explored through the use of spider diagrams where rank scores were assigned to both index results and human water quality use categories. These were compared and it was found that ecological indicators are more sensitive than human water quality use scores and therefore can aid in acting as early detection indicators of possible negative impacts on human health and wellbeing. / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The benefits of public participation in water management are recognized by governments, scholars, and stakeholders. These benefits, however, do not result from all engagement endeavors. This leads to the question: What are the determinants for effective public participation? Given a list of criteria for achieving the transformational capacity of participation, we analyze the benefits (including the influence on public policies) gained through public participation and the determinant factors for obtaining these benefits in the Ebro River Basin in Spain and in the Tucson Basin in Arizona (U.S.). Furthermore, and considering that droughts and floods are major water management challenges in both case studies, we focus on the potential of participation to build adaptive capacity. Our analysis of these case studies concludes that influence on public policies is determined more by the context of the participatory process, i.e., legal framework, political leadership, and social awareness, whereas influence on adaptive capacity building depends more on the characteristics of the participatory process, particularly the existence of active on-site consultation and deliberation.

In the two past decades, the topic of water resources has occurred more abundantly, the water has become the object of many research institutions. While in the 19th and 20th centuries of human progress took place under the sign of coal and oil, today is coming to the forefront the issue of availability of water resources and the related need for effective management which would assure an even distribution. This diploma thesis aims to highlight the problems of water resource management, offers options which would be theoretical focused and an example case study to show what the consequences may have a system which is implemented in isolation without consideration for other inter-sector policy. The context which involves on the current situation of water shortage in Mexico City is identified and analyzed.

A modelagem de serviços ecossistêmicos hidrológicos é uma ferramenta auxiliar na tomada de decisões para investimento financeiro em práticas de uso da terra e em projetos para a restauração florestal. Em virtude da necessidade de melhoria no provimento desses serviços ao menor custo de investimento para o Sistema Cantareira, este trabalho teve o objetivo de simular cenários para avaliação de atividades de transição do uso e cobertura da terra e identificação de áreas prioritáriass, considerando critérios ambientais, sociais e políticos. A região do estudo compreende um complexo hidráulico de transposição de bacias dos rios Piracicaba, Capivari e Jundiaí (PCJ) para a bacia do Alto Tietê, que possui a finalidade de abastecimento de água para a região metropolitana de São Paulo. Foram utilizados os modelos InVEST e RIOS, ferramentas compostas por métodos consagrados da literatura científica, como a equação universal da perda de solo e o balanço hídrico de massa em bacias. São modelos baseados na valoração do capital natural, utilizados para a avaliação da exportação de sedimentos e produção de escoamento base, de acordo com o valor de investimento e o custo de atividades, respectivamente. As atividades definidas para transição compreenderam a alteração das áreas agrícolas de pastagem para sistema agroflorestal (silvipastoril), a restauração florestal assistida e a regeneração natural. A diferença entre os cenários foi a adoção das atividades propostas e o montante de recursos a ser aplicado por sub-bacia. Os melhores cenários para redução na exportação de sedimentos foram avaliados em relação à transição na área total de drenagem e para a produção hídrica sazonal. O modelo RIOS demonstrou maior sensibilidade aos custos das atividades de transição e à efetividade no controle da erosão, sendo que, os critérios aplicados para áreas preferenciais demonstraram um bom resultado na priorização das áreas. No modelo InVEST foi possível identificar as sub-bacias que apresentaram maior exportação de sedimentos e os cenários com melhor resultado para a diminuição, identificados como plantio e regeneração. A regeneração demonstrou ser a atividade com melhor benefício, com redução de 33,20% e aumento de 24,10% no escoamento base, quando considerada a área preferencial de transição em APP, declividade até 25% e vertentes de face sul, para a distribuição de áreas pelo modelo. / The modeling of hydrological ecosystem services is an auxiliary tool in decision making for financial investment in land use practices and in forest restoration projects. Due to the need for improvement in the provision of these services at the lowest investment cost for the Cantareira System, this work aimed to simulate scenarios for the evaluation of land use and land cover transition activities and identification of priority areas, with environmental, social and political criteria. The study area comprises a hydraulic complex for the transposition of the Piracicaba, Capivari and Jundiaí (PCJ) river basins into the Alto Tietê basin, which has the purpose of supplying water to the metropolitan region of São Paulo. The InVEST and RIOS models, composed by scientific tools approaches as university soil loss equation and water mass balance in watersheds. They are based on the valuation of natural capital, used for the evaluation of sediment exports and production of base flow, according the investment value and cost of activities, respectively. The activities defined for transition included the change from pasture to agroforestry (agroforestry pasture), assisted forest restoration and natural regeneration. The difference between the scenarios was the adoption of the proposed activities and the amount of resources to be applied in each watershed. The best scenarios for the reduction of sediment exports were evaluated in relation to the transition in the total drainage area and for seasonal water production. The RIOS model showed greater sensitivity to the costs of transition activities and erosion control effectiveness, and the criteria applied to preferential areas showed a good result in the prioritization of the areas. In the InVEST model, it was possible to identify the watersheds that had the highest export of sediments and the scenarios with the best result for the decrease, identified as planting and regeneration. Regeneration was the most favored activity, with a reduction of 33.20% and 24.10% of increase in the base flow, when considering the transition in APP, the slope by 25% and south face slopes as choose criteria to model distribution areas.

Water will become increasingly scarce in the 21st century. Agriculture dominates anthropogenic water use and accounts for about 70% of water withdrawals globally. Unique challenges face tropical small-plot agricultural water management that differs from region to region. This dissertation examines two challenges facing tropical small-plot agriculture. Chapter 2 uses an experimental trial in Western Tanzania to create a unique longitudinal dataset of crop water stress measured over the growing season. The trial tests the effect of seed variety and fertilizer treatment on crop water stress over the growing season and during dry spells. Results demonstrate that hybrid varieties yield significantly more than the locally adapted traditional variety because they are better able to access nutrients and have better stomatal regulation over dry spells. Chapters 3 and 4 shift the focus to India. Chapter 3 characterizes the inter-annual dynamics of anthropogenic water stress across the Central Indian Highlands (CIH), while Chapter 4 examines the hydrological impacts of increasing forest cover on regional water supply and its implications for sustainable irrigation as well as food production. Within Chapter 3, I use extensive data sourced from the Indian government to spatially characterize water demand over the past decade by spatially mapping multiple waves of the Minor Irrigation Scheme Census and Livestock Census collected at the household level, along with monthly power generation datasets. The patio-temporal water demand data is coupled with remotely sensed precipitation and evapotranspiration data to force a customized Sacramento Soil Moisture Accounting Model that computes water supply. Finally, I developed a Groundwater Supply Stress Index to account for the impact of irrigation groundwater withdrawals over the course of the year. Chapter 3 finds that 70% of CIH is water-stressed during some portion of the year and that irrigation makes up approximately 95% of anthropogenic water withdrawals. Chapter 4 extends the findings of chapter 3 in utilizing the infiltration-evapotranspiration trade-off hypothesis to understand the impact of converting croplands to forest on groundwater recharge within the CIH. In this Chapter, I collected and analyzed field data on field-saturated hydraulic conductivity to find that forested land has significantly higher infiltration rates than croplands. These finding are then included in a Spatial Processes in Hydrology model to simulate intra-annual hydrological dynamics of current forest cover versus a forest cover increased to 30% within the river basins of the CIH. Increased forest cover is one of India’s Nationally Determined Commitments at COP21 within the Mission to Green India with a stated aim of improving landscape hydrological functioning. I demonstrate that forest cover increase has the potential to increase groundwater recharge, which could be used to irrigate a second growing season and help offset the loss of cropland through conversion to forest. Collectively, these three chapters harness multiple sources of data and leverage a wide array of innovative methods at multiple scales to shed light on important water management issues faced by small-plot agriculture in the tropics and on opportunities for better agricultural water resource management across two continents.

The hydrology of southwestern British Columbia is influenced by the region’s mountainous topography and climate oscillations generated from the Pacific Ocean. While much of the region is characterized as a temperate rainforest, recent summers are defined by record-breaking droughts that focus attention on the threat to regional water supply security likely to accompany future climate changes. The limited length and distribution of hydrological records in southwestern British Columbia provide poor context for resource managers tasked with developing policy and water management strategies. The purpose of the dissertation was to describe long-term variability in several key hydroclimatic variables and hydroecological interactions that may be used in updated water resource policy and management strategies. Specifically, the research focused on developing long-term proxy records of April 1 snow water equivalent (SWE), summer streamflow, spring lake levels, and salmon abundance from tree ring records. A secondary goal of the dissertation was to identify the role and influence of several key climate oscillations on regional long-term hydroclimatic and ecological variability. Freshet contributions from melting snow are critical for sustained summer streamflow in southwestern British Columbia. Even so, few manual snow survey stations exist within the region are of sufficient length to understand the full range of natural SWE variability. Long-term April 1 SWE records were constructed by establishing statistical relationships with the radial growth of high-elevation trees and April 1 SWE records. Explaining 51% and 73% of the total variance in the instrumental SWE records in coastal and continental settings, the reconstructions provide high-resolution descriptions of April 1 SWE over the past three centuries and help position the remainder of the dissertation. Negative phases of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) and El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) were shown to strongly influence April 1 SWE totals. Both reconstructions illustrate repeated step-changes in April 1 SWE during the last 300 years and show that coastal areas may be more sensitive to annual variability than snowpack that accumulates in more continental locations. Water shortages in the Metro Vancouver area in recent summers are linked to low total winter snowpack and early spring melt. Dendrohydrological analysis of dry-season streamflow was conducted to determine if the instrumental range has been underestimated over the past several centuries. A regionalized record of July-August streamflow for the Capilano and Seymour watersheds, which supply the Metro Vancouver area, was modelled from present to 1711using tree-rings. Explaining 54% of total variance over the instrumental period, the models show that below-average streamflow events are becoming more frequent. When compared to those characterizing the past 300 years, streamflow totals from 1977 to present have consistently fallen well-below the average long-term discharge. Further analyses indicated that negative ENSO and PDO conditions strongly influenced July-August runoff trends since 1711, as have climate regimes related to the Pacific North American pattern (PNA). The increased frequency in recent years of reduced summer runoff in southwestern British Columbia has led many communities to rely on natural and dammed reservoirs to supplement their water needs. Where communities rely on natural lakes, this dependence may have socioeconomic consequences if lake levels fall below those necessary to supply built infrastructure. Unfortunately, there are few lake level records in southwestern British Columbia and none of sufficient duration to understand the full range of variability in natural lake systems. Harrison Lake is the only natural lake with a lake level record exceeding 50 years. Using the average April water level dataset, a dendrohydrological model was constructed that explained 49.5% of total variance. The model was used to reconstruct a proxy record of April water levels spanning the interval from 1711 to 1980. Averaging 9.37 m in depth, lake levels in Harrison Lake ranged from 8.9 to 10.0 m over the past 300 years. These variations were shown to be statistically associated with negative and positive phases of ENSO and positive phases of PDO. April water levels in Harrison Lake have been, on average, 0.13 m lower since the mid-1930s compared to the previous 200 years. This reduction in storage capacity amounts to a loss of almost 300-million litres of stored water since the start of instrumental records. Salmon play a vital economic, cultural, and social role in many southwestern British Columbia communities. There is concern that salmon populations in the region are under threat, as changing climates alter and impact their spawning habitat. While various lines of research have sought to determine the response of salmon to these changing conditions, population records that extend only to 1951 hinder a complete understanding of the impacts. Two dendroecological models were constructed to provide a longer-term perspective of regional salmon-climate relationships. Explaining 48.2% and 48.9% of variance in observed Chinook and Coho salmon abundance since 1951, the models were used to construct proxy escapement records extending to the 1700s. Spectral analysis revealed that the reconstructions account for generational life histories and that low-frequency climate variability was associated with fluctuations in abundance. Both the Chinook and the Coho reconstructions show phase dependent relationships to climate oscillations generated from the Pacific Ocean. The Coho record is strongly linked to negative winter and spring ENSO, while the Chinook record was shown to be associated with negative PDO conditions. The identified relationships to teleconnections generated in the Pacific Ocean to our record indicates that both species are sensitive to oceanic interactions prior to entering natal habitats. Taken together, the reconstructions illustrate that the observational record encompasses a period of lower-than-average abundance and that neither accounts for the full range of variability in annual abundance when considered over the past three centuries. The proxy tree-ring records presented in this dissertation provide new information about climate-water resource relationships in southwestern British Columbia. Significant phase-dependent associations, especially to negative phases of the PDO and ENSO, were shown to exert long-term influences on the state of several critical hydroclimatic variables over the last 300 years. Additionally, the research illustrates that over the instrumental period, both streamflow and lake volumes in the region have consistently remained below those characterizing the previous two to three centuries. These findings are of direct use to resource managers tasked with developing new policy and strategies under present and future climate change, in that they offer singular insights into the full range of natural hydroclimatic variability in southwestern British Columbia. / Graduate

In 1986, Vietnam opened up the country’s economy by launching the Doi Moi (renovation) policy, which made the process of economic liberalisation possible. Accordingly, Ho Chi Minh City, the country’s biggest city, has undergone rapid growth of population, urbanisation and industrialisation. While achieving remarkable economic growth, the city faces considerable urban environmental challenges. The rapid growth of urbanisation and industry has placed increasing pressure on available freshwater resources, through excessive water use and increasing volumes of untreated wastewater. Firstly, the urban water sector has had to meet growing demand for water use for domestic purposes during the dry season. Secondly, groundwater levels have experienced a substantial drawdown in outlying urban districts as a result of over-abstraction. Thirdly, rapidly expanding industrial activities are causing severe demand on water resources. The city’s major supply sources have developed an alarming level of pollutants discharged by industry. The aim of this thesis is to formulate an integrated approach to the sustainable management of water resources in Ho Chi Minh City. In order to achieve this, the research was designed to examine institutional frameworks and arrangements and to explore the perception of water value by water users and stakeholders. The underlying reasons for ineffective management are anchored in fragmented management practices which result from inadequate institutional frameworks and arrangements, inadequate regulations and inappropriate water governance. Weak enforcement of law and insufficient cooperation between government agencies and departments in Ho Chi Minh City and their counterparts in neighbouring provinces also limit management efficacy. The research results show that stakeholders have different perceptions of water resources. Overall, water value has been considered as a social and economic good by both the urban respondents and government officials. However, most urban residents view water as a social good rather than an economic one. Public involvement in the water sector is limited. Most urban dwellers have little understanding and knowledge about the city’s water issues or the available channels to access information on water resources. Many government officials are inadequately trained, poorly qualified, inexperienced and have irrelevant or outdated background knowledge about their field of management. Government respondents did not provide consistent data and information on the water profile because there is no shared common information on water issues in place. Findings from the fieldwork show that decentralisation, privatisation and using rainwater as a potential alternative water source are preferred. Finally, the study proposes a schematic revision of existing management structures and mechanisms between local government agencies. This thesis proposes a model for a water conservation strategy for which the management and use of water resources is aligned with adequate institutional arrangements and effective regulations. Water governance and management of water resources need to work with economic and urbanisation growth. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1331639 / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Adelaide, School of Social Sciences, 2008

The Upper Ovens River catchment is located in the Victorian high plains of Australia. With an absence of major storages or weirs, the flow regime of the Upper Ovens River is close to its natural magnitude and frequency. Water extraction from rivers has the potential to negatively impact on environmental flow requirements and management of extraction is required to maintain flows to the river, especially over the low flow summer periods. The Upper Ovens River has been shown to have a high connectivity between groundwater and surface water, and for effective protection of stream flow, it is proposed that groundwater and surface water are managed conjunctively by a government legislated Water Management Plan. Environmental stream flow objectives have been identified, but no method exists to link these to groundwater objectives. Without this link, water resource managers cannot develop management methods or plans for management of groundwater to achieve surface flow objectives. / Existing data commonly available to water resource managers was analysed to develop a method to link stream flow objectives to groundwater management objectives, and investigate the groundwater-surface water relationship and water cycle in the Upper Ovens catchment. A water balance for a well defined sub-catchment was developed for the period between 1975 and 2005 to investigate the water cycle and magnitude of fluxes between groundwater in the unconsolidated sediments of the valleys and surface water. Darcy’s law and statistical regression analysis of commonly available historic data were used to develop the understanding of the groundwater-river level relationship and produce a method for relating environmental river flow targets to groundwater levels. A set of conjunctive management principles for resource managers was produced based upon the sound scientific understanding of groundwater-surface water interactions. / The mean water balance shows a clear seasonal pattern for movement of water between surface water and groundwater. Groundwater levels have remained steady, with average annual groundwater recharge from rainfall and the river of 9,773 ML nearly equal to average annual discharge of 9,584 ML from the aquifer as baseflow or evaporation in the dry season. Generally extraction of groundwater and surface water (3,200 ML/yr) and fluxes between groundwater and the river (2,626 ML/yr), are only minor components of the water balance (560,000 ML/yr) and do not affect the flow patterns in the Ovens River. However, in years with very low flows over the Summer/Autumn period, extraction from the river can significantly reduce flow in the river. Management of river flow at this time is the focus for water resource managers. / Field measurements and regression relationships showed a rapid rate of flux between groundwater and the river with the time lag (for rises in river level to subsequent rises in groundwater levels) increasing with distance of the aquifer from the river to be 14-20 days at the maximum measured distance of 750 metres from the river. With the narrow width of the unconsolidated sediment aquifer (less than 3000 metres) extraction of groundwater from these aquifers is expected to impact on stream flows within the summer period (90 days). / Regression analysis produced equations for relating Ovens River levels to groundwater levels with a high correlation. These equations can relate stream flow objectives to corresponding groundwater management that can be used by resource managers with a high level of confidence. Groundwater and surface water, in the form of river flows, are intrinsically linked and to protect flows in the Ovens River during times of low flow, groundwater has to be managed in line with surface water. Four principles have been identified for conjunctive management in the Upper Ovens, and resource managers should set management rules based on the following principles: 1) Groundwater and surface water are hydraulically connected, manage as one; 2) Restrict groundwater extraction in line with surface water restrictions; 3) Manage groundwater to minimum groundwater levels; and 4)Manage groundwater in the unconsolidated sediments as one aquifer.

In 1986, Vietnam opened up the country’s economy by launching the Doi Moi (renovation) policy, which made the process of economic liberalisation possible. Accordingly, Ho Chi Minh City, the country’s biggest city, has undergone rapid growth of population, urbanisation and industrialisation. While achieving remarkable economic growth, the city faces considerable urban environmental challenges. The rapid growth of urbanisation and industry has placed increasing pressure on available freshwater resources, through excessive water use and increasing volumes of untreated wastewater. Firstly, the urban water sector has had to meet growing demand for water use for domestic purposes during the dry season. Secondly, groundwater levels have experienced a substantial drawdown in outlying urban districts as a result of over-abstraction. Thirdly, rapidly expanding industrial activities are causing severe demand on water resources. The city’s major supply sources have developed an alarming level of pollutants discharged by industry. The aim of this thesis is to formulate an integrated approach to the sustainable management of water resources in Ho Chi Minh City. In order to achieve this, the research was designed to examine institutional frameworks and arrangements and to explore the perception of water value by water users and stakeholders. The underlying reasons for ineffective management are anchored in fragmented management practices which result from inadequate institutional frameworks and arrangements, inadequate regulations and inappropriate water governance. Weak enforcement of law and insufficient cooperation between government agencies and departments in Ho Chi Minh City and their counterparts in neighbouring provinces also limit management efficacy. The research results show that stakeholders have different perceptions of water resources. Overall, water value has been considered as a social and economic good by both the urban respondents and government officials. However, most urban residents view water as a social good rather than an economic one. Public involvement in the water sector is limited. Most urban dwellers have little understanding and knowledge about the city’s water issues or the available channels to access information on water resources. Many government officials are inadequately trained, poorly qualified, inexperienced and have irrelevant or outdated background knowledge about their field of management. Government respondents did not provide consistent data and information on the water profile because there is no shared common information on water issues in place. Findings from the fieldwork show that decentralisation, privatisation and using rainwater as a potential alternative water source are preferred. Finally, the study proposes a schematic revision of existing management structures and mechanisms between local government agencies. This thesis proposes a model for a water conservation strategy for which the management and use of water resources is aligned with adequate institutional arrangements and effective regulations. Water governance and management of water resources need to work with economic and urbanisation growth. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1331639 / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Adelaide, School of Social Sciences, 2008