<p>The aim of this investigation was to provide a framework or strategy for prioritising and implementing regional groundwater monitoring in the Olifants-Doorn Water Management (WMA) area. The general approach was to attempt to reconcile monitoring requirements with existing resources, while investigating the hypothesis that regional monitoring should focus on resource status monitoring. Groundwater science needs to focus on clarifying the sustainability options available to the stakeholders, and monitoring the chosen option. This can best be done by adopting an adaptive management approach to both the management of the groundwater resources, and the management of the monitoring programme.</p>

A thesis submitted to the faculty of science, at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, 2017. / Water resource monitoring plays a pivotal role in a number of sectors such as determining sustainable abstraction and use of water, determining the feasibility of development projects in relation to water, and developing systematic strategies for efficient overall management of the water resources. It has been observed by a number of scholars and policy makers that through periodic monitoring of water resources, valuable data can be collected which can then provide information sufficient to determine trends and develop predictive models. It is only when sound and reliable data is available that informed decisions about sustainable and efficient use of water resources can be made. Despite the importance of water resource monitoring, many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in South Africa, are not effectively and adequately monitoring the quantity and quality of water resources. Part of the reason for this state of affairs has been the absence of clearly defined roles, policies, strategies and responsibilities and a combination of these factors have resulted in significant fragmentations in the institutional structures mandated to manage water resources. Using expert sampling, interviews with key informants and other purposively chosen participants, revealed the challenges in the changing political landscape of South African water resource monitoring many of which were further reiterated in the focus group discussions. The identified challenges served as entry points that would improve water resources monitoring and enable decision makers to make sustainable management decisions. It is suggested that water resource monitoring programmes could be used as a tool for sustainable water resource monitoring in South Africa. However, climate change and urbanization bring about a certain level of complexity, uncertainty and conflict as the water landscape of water resources changes continuously. The impact of the above phenomena cannot be measured as current monitoring systems are not functioning optimally. Furthermore, monitoring programmes are not being used to their full potential due to governance challenges. This is due to conflicting roles that the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) plays in the water sector i.e. policy developer, supporter and regulator, which in turn confound the roles and responsibilities of its employees. Moreover, it was found that five major challenges impede the formation of a comprehensive water resources management system namely; lack of financial resources, lack of skilled human resources, poor governance structure, ineffective stakeholder engagement – ‘working in silos’ and inefficient data management. More importantly, it was found that sustainability of monitoring programmes relies on human and economic investment. The main recommendations made include institutional reform and enabling legislation which form the basis upon which any development efforts can be pursued to achieve sustainable water resource monitoring. In addition, capacity building and strengthening is recommended as another way to help build sustainable resource management institutions which include skills and institutional memory transfer from the experienced players to the younger and newer employees. The creation and/or optimization of water resource monitoring databases is one of the viable ways for sustainable water resource management to be realized. Furthermore, research can be conducted to assess the challenges in water resource monitoring and provide sustainable solutions; with the aim of quantifying the impact of policy reforms in the water sector. And finally, research can be done on how effective regulation and co-operative governance for water sector can be achieved in South Africa through participatory processes that are aimed at developing priority water research questions. Keywords: water resource monitoring, institutional framework, integrated water resource management, water governance. / GR2018

<p>The aim of this investigation was to provide a framework or strategy for prioritising and implementing regional groundwater monitoring in the Olifants-Doorn Water Management (WMA) area. The general approach was to attempt to reconcile monitoring requirements with existing resources, while investigating the hypothesis that regional monitoring should focus on resource status monitoring. Groundwater science needs to focus on clarifying the sustainability options available to the stakeholders, and monitoring the chosen option. This can best be done by adopting an adaptive management approach to both the management of the groundwater resources, and the management of the monitoring programme.</p>

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Science, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Hydrogeology, School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand. Johannesburg, June 2017. / Groundwater is a principal source of water for many semi-arid countries, including Botswana and South Africa. This is especially true for the rural communities within these regions that lie on the periphery of local water scheme pipelines and make direct use of groundwater. The Ramotswa transboundary aquifer, which supplies local communities and nearby cities with fresh groundwater, is a highly productive and unique karst sequence shared by South Africa and Botswana. The objective of the study was to contribute to the available hydrogeological data by means of evaluating groundwater flow, nitrate pollution and the median recession index and master recession curve for the aquifer. The interpreted airborne geophysical data revealed the presence of collapsed features in the northeastern area corresponding to the karst morphology. A piezometric map of the area shows the groundwater flow is towards the north-northeast, which is supported by salinity increase across the study area. Increased nitrate concentrations were identified in areas with increased rainfall, shallow groundwater and a mature karst system. Only 3% of the 36 sample sites had nitrate concentrations exceeding the WHO guideline limit of 50 mg/l. This was attributed to the legacy of unlined pit latrines in karstified areas. Pollution is entirely anthropogenic and generally from non-point sources. A median recession index computed by RECESS program from the Dinokana spring discharge data was 295.7 days per log cycle and the generated master recession curve’s gentle slope alludes to massive storage potential within the karst compartment. The results of the study can alert stakeholders alike of the health risk of direct consumption of the groundwater without pretreatment. Establishing an understanding of the nitrate pollution sources and groundwater flow direction, and estimating the recession index provides informed groundwater pollution and vulnerability management options. This can improve the aquifer resource assessment and the livelihoods of local communities in the face of increasing climate change. / XL2017

A project report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineerrng, / As has happened throughout the world. environmental and water quality problems related to developing urban and industrial areas and associated accumulation of waste in built-up areas were the main factors in contributing to sanitary awareness in South Africa. The dwindling water resources and persistent deterioration of water quality, more severely in urban areas, necessitates the review the current practice of storm water management in South Africa. Reliable stormwater drainage models evaluating both the water quantity and quality could be essential in confronting the prevailing pollution problems. The objective of this project was conceived to be the development of a system for the simulation of water quality in urban watercourses, A personal computer compatible model for joint transportation of hydrograph and pollutographs in open channels was developed. The model comprises an operational data handling facility, a user friendly and interactive interface. The study revealed that: Urban and Industrial development results in complication of the urban water system. • Single objectivity approaches in management of urban watercourses are outdated . .. The proposed model is capable of simultaneously routing flood and pollutant condiment waves in open channels. Understanding of aspects of the water quality in urban watercourse can be greatly enhanced by the proposed model. The following recommendations were henceforth made: • Detailed study of the nature. quantity and sources of pollutants in the urban water system. .. Sophisticated (dynamic wave. supercritical flow, complicated ..................... hydrodynamic model snould be considered, • Biological and, chemical process in the urban watercourse be incorporated. • Linking of the water quality model to the storm water drainage model, / Andrew Chakane 2018

The provision of goods and services by aquatic ecosystems plays an important role in socio-economic development and livelihoods in the southern African region. Water resource management in South Africa developed from an agrarian and pastoral focus up to 1956 to also supporting mining and industrial activities. This led to the introduction of the resource water quality objectives and pollution prevention approaches, which balanced the needs for development and protection. Prior to 1994, access to water resources was limited to riparian property owners and a minority of the population who controlled industrial and mining activities. The establishment of a democratic government amplified the need for accelerated socio-economic development, with equity, efficiency and sustainability being the principles of such development. New approaches were needed, which could achieve these development objectives and secure the resource base for future generations. An overview of the scientific process highlighted a risk based approach as potentially supporting the much needed balance between development and protection. The aims of this thesis is to develop a framework and process for the application of ecological risk assessment to water resource management in South Africa, to use case studies to draft guidelines for ecological risk assessment and to assess the degree to which ecological risk assessment can contribute to effective water resource management in South Africa. The United States Environmental Protection Agency’s guidelines for ecological risk assessment were identified amongst international best practice as meeting the requirements for local application. A framework was drafted for ecological risk assessment in South Africa, with the main phases being to agree on objectives, formulate the analysis plan, analyse information, characterise risk and manage risk. Modifications from the Environmental Protection Agency’s process include the order of activities in the first phase, the explicit testing of hypotheses and clarification of the evaluation of existing data or collection of new data. An industrial effluent case study was used to assess the applicability of the proposed framework. The case study dealt specifically with the assessment of risks posed by current conditions and long term licence conditions. The framework was found to be useful to identify weaknesses in the established monitoring programme and to evaluate lines of evidence to assess the degree to which the stated conditions would have unacceptable consequences. The study highlighted several weaknesses in the suggested framework, of which the most critical is the interpretation of the risk hypothesis as a testable null hypothesis. It became clear that cause-effect relationships should be stated as the risk hypothesis, whereas the assessment should evaluate expressed or expected conditions against a risk profile for a given stressor to benefit fully from the risk assessment approach. Changes to the framework terminology were suggested as well as nested feedback loops to allow for iterative processes where new information becomes available. The proposed guidelines incorporate the learning from the case study application as well as feedback from a peer review process. The guidelines incorporate the suggested actions under each phase as well as notes providing the rationale for each step. Three case study outlines were provided to assist users with the interpretation of the guidelines in different applications. The proposed guidelines are applied in an ecological Reserve determination case study, which specified the ecological water quality requirements. The study found that a risk-based approach was followed in the development of the water resource management policy, but the Reserve determination method is generally hazard based, with site specific modifications of the target values being allowed on a conservative basis. The case study highlighted a lack of readiness of water resource managers to accommodate scientific results expressed as probability distributions in support of management decisions. The thesis is concluded with a discussion of the key learning points of the ecological risk assessment development process. The evaluation highlights the move from stating and testing a null hypothesis to stating the risk hypothesis and evaluating the stated conditions against a risk profile. Several implementation challenges are highlighted, with specific recommendations made for adopting the proposed guidelines.

South African legislation, as summarised in The Strategic Framework for Water Services (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 2003), makes local authorities responsible for all water services to individual consumers. As Water Services Authorities (WSAs), municipalities must appoint Water Services Providers (WSPs) to implement water services. The legislation allows a range of organisations to act as WSPs. The Strategic Framework also lays down norms and standards with regards to continuity of water supplies and water quality. The country has adopted a policy of "Free Basic Water", which requires WSAs to provide a basic level of services free of charge. Six kilolitres per household per month is the norm adopted by most municipalities. In deciding on the institutional arrangements for the provISIon of water serVIces, municipalities need to decide what functions, if any, to outsource. Most international literature that reviews experiences of the International Water Decade advocates community management of rural water supplies, pointing to failures of government run, centralised management of rural schemes. A strong reason given for choosing community management is the sense of "ownership" this gives to local communities. Traditional theories on management by government organisations use a "steering" model, in which the government sets the course for policy and administrators implement the policies decided upon. Since the 1980s, a new paradigm for analysing government has emerged, emphasising the limits to governments' power to act as it wishes. The new model is one of networks of various interdependent organisations, often with the government at the centre. Such a model can be used to depict organisational relationships in rural areas of South Africa. In the early 1990s, a number ofNGOs implemented rural water schemes using the community management approach. However, after the passing of legislation making municipalities WSAs, very few municipalities have seriously considered community management, or any formal role for local community based organisations. Efforts to assess the effectiveness of municipalities' water service delivery IS severely hampered by a lack of usable data. Since starting to take responsibility for water schemes from DWAF and other bodies in 2000, municipalities have struggled to manage service delivery effectively, largely due to a shortage of management and technical skills. Alfred Nzo District Municipality (ANDM) is one of the poorest municipalities in the country, with high levels of poverty. Approximately 50% of the rural population have adequate water services, that is 25 litres per person available within 200 metres of the household (Smith, 2006). The operation of services is paid mainly from the municipality's equitable share from national government. This report attempts to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of community management of rural water supplies. This is done by examining ANDM's community management model as a case study. The roles and responsibilities of various actors in the programme were analysed by interviewing the Support Services Agents (SSAs) engaged to co-ordinate the programme. The effectiveness of the water services were analysed using the SSAs' monthly reports, and this was compared with other available data. The experiences of other rural municipalities were also examined, focusing on their experiences with community participation. The model used by ANDM consisted of a water committee or board for each water scheme, which supervised the work of local operators and administrators. Operators carried out minor repairs, while the SSAs did monthly servicing of pumps and motors, and implemented major repairs, largely by supervising local operators and casual labourers. Committees submitted monthly reports to the SSAs, which were used as a basis for reports from the SSAs to the municipality. SSAs also reported on water quality. The figures for continuity of supply (measuring the operability of the infrastructure) varied considerably between the three SSAs. A possible reason for low figures from one SSA was that the figures also reflected water shortages in some schemes. Figures for water quality varied more than those for continuity, leading to a concern about the extent to which sampling and testing procedures were standardised. The figures were compared with figures from attitude surveys on water services recording consumers' perceptions about continuity of supply. The difference in data being measured, and concerns about the meaning of the figures from the SSAs' reports make direct comparisons impossible. However, the data indicates that for schemes served by two of the SSAs at least, a reasonably effective service was rendered. The cost to the municipality of providing water services was R4,19 per person per month, a relatively low figure compared with other municipalities. The four KwaZulu-Natal District Municipalities interviewed all reported negative experiences with community management of rural schemes that they inherited, and all four have opted for a centralised system, one using a partnership with a water board. None of the four municipalities had systematic data on continuity of service. Despite the difficulties in comparing the performance of ANDM to that of other municipalities, it is clear that the system employed by the municipality to use community management with the support of external consultants and NGOs was workable, sustainable and efficient. The participation of local community organisations assisted in some of the common problems that beset rural water schemes such as vandalism and water wastage. The report recommends that: • Municipalities with remote rural water schemes seriously consider community management as an effective and efficient delivery mechanism. • Where community management is employed, it is backed up with effective managerial and technical support. • The Alfred Nzo District Municipality reinstate the contracts with external Support Services Agents, which were the basis of effective management of and reporting on its rural water supply programme, unless equivalent internal capacity has been acquired to do the work done by the Support Services Agents. • Water Services Providers be required by water services authorities to submit regular data on service availability, continuity of supply and water quality, and Water Services Authorities in turn be required to submit similar data to DWAF. • DWAF issues guidelines on how proper separation of regulation and implementation roles be effected between WSAs and WSPs respectively when the WSP function is carried out internally. / Thesis (M.B.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

Climate change and variability have great impact on the hydrological cycle and consequently on the availability of water resources. Variations in temperature and precipitation trends that are occurring are a consequent of the increase in the concentrations of greenhouse gases, which are subsequently affecting the hydrological cycle. This in turn affects water quantity and quality, which is essential for agriculture, domestic and industrial uses. This study, done in Elliot Town and the surrounding areas of Sakhisizwe Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, evaluates how climate change and variability is affecting water availability and its quality in the town. The impact climate change and variability on agricultural production is also assessed. Remote Sensing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), databases and some statistical packages have been used to collect, analyse and create spatial maps used to derive concrete conclusions. The methods used aided in spatially analysing the changes in temperature and rainfall along the years and make a comparative analysis. The study has shown that the spatial changes in the amount, intensity and frequency of rainfall affects the magnitude and frequency of stream flows; consequently, increasing the intensity of floods and droughts that have been recurring in the last few decades. The municipality is more affected by climate variability than change, and the resultant extreme climate events are affecting the water resources resulting in domestic water cuts, poor water quality and low agriculture productivity. This study recommends the importance of an awareness campaigns on climate change and variability and their effect directed towards the community, especially on novel water harvesting technologies. The study also highlights the importance of a robust early warning system to prepare the community in case of a climate shock, which is an area that needs further research. / Environmental Sciences

A research report submitted to the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering, Johannesburg, 2017 / Human beings depend on water not only for life itself but also for their economic wellbeing. Water resources play a cardinal role in the creation of everything that human beings produce. Post-apartheid South Africa is in the throes of incredible challenges. One of the more important challenges is access for all citizens to basic services. South Africa is doing this against a backdrop of strongly differential servicing that is its apartheid legacy, which has prompted many commentators to label South Africa a country of two worlds, more specifically, a developed world component and an impoverished developing world component. The challenge with respect to water is to ensure universal access in the context of the added hurdle of South Africa being a water-scarce country. The local municipalities of the Eastern Cape have been facing a number of challenges in the provision of clean, portable water to their communities. This has resulted in inadequate provision of water, meaning that not all communities have access to clean water 24 hours a day The overall objective for this study is to contribute to the body of knowledge available to the water sector about the management of sustainable water supply systems in municipalities, and determine the factors that have undermined the sustainability of water provision at a local government municipal level in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. In this research, the effectiveness of local governments, which act as water services authorities (WSA) and providers of water to the rural communities, is examined. To this end, a comprehensive literature review was conducted and data gathered to discover why there has been a failure in the provision of clean drinking water. The results of the research illustrate that institutional incapacity in rural municipalities and widespread poverty serve to undermine the sustainability of the local government sector and lead to breakdowns in services delivery. Measures are proposed that can be adopted to improve the current approaches of water supply in local municipalities. / CK2018

M.A. (Public Management and Governance) / “Water will be the scarce resources in the 21st century.” This vision was brought to the South African Government’s attention after the Water Research Commission (WRC) conducted extensive research as illustrated in the WRC’s Annual report for 2007/8. According to the WRC, the research aimed to enlighten decision and policy makers to take precautionary measures that will help guarantee that water resources are “protected, used, developed, conserved, and managed in a sustainable manner”. Hence, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) has started developing the Water Resource Classification System to mitigate the anticipated challenge envisioned. Among others, the WRC’s findings guided the development of this policy. On the other hand, the South African Constitution, 1996 states that, “people have the right to environment which is not harmful to the citizen”. Other legislation, such as the National Environmental Management Act (1998), the National Water Act, 1998 and the Water Services Act, 1997 echoed the same sentiment. The National Water Act, 1998 served as basis for a National Water Resources Strategy as a framework to guide the entire Water Resource Classification System policy process (Chapter 2: Part 1 of the National Water Act, 1998. Section 195 (e) of the South African Constitution, 1996, highlights that “people’s needs must be responded to, and the public must be encouraged to participate in the policy making”. Thus, the role of stakeholder participation in the DWAF Water Resource Classification System (WRCS) was chosen as a topic for investigation to inform policy makers as well as to identify policy defects. The research project aimed to evaluate the level of stakeholder participation in developing policy, as well as identifying and assessing the nature, influence and levels of their participation. It was established that broad stakeholder participation was a critical success factor during this policy development process. However, the WRCS was finalised based only on the information gathered from a few stakeholders. It should be noted that when water classification was undertaken the environmental issues were considered in such a way that the classification process does not in one way or another compromise the environment in general and is not detrimental to ecosystems in particular. According to the National Water Act, 1998, water is classified in three categories, namely minimally, moderately and heavily. In other countries water is treated as just another natural resource, but in South Africa water is treated as government’s scarce resource. This study investigated the importance of stakeholder participation as a key to policy development in a democratic state and concluded that better participation would have enhanced citizen ownership and shaping the policy concerned.