West Nile Virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne pathogen of global significance. It is active on several continents and is responsible for recent outbreaks of fever and fatal encephalitis in humans and horses. While highly virulent strains have been reported in Europe, North, Central and South America, only a benign subtype of WNV (Kunjin virus – KUNV) occurs in Australia. However, virulent, exotic WNV strains are seen as a significant threat to Australia due to the ease with which this virus can move between continents and the presence of suitable vectors and hosts already within Australia. KUNV and WNV subtypes are antigenically and genetically very closely related and cross-react in traditional serological tests. This cross-reactivity makes it very difficult to differentiate between KUNV and WNV infections using standard serological tests. The aim of this thesis was to identify immunogenic epitopes unique to KUNV or WNV and to use these epitopes in the development of a rapid assay that would enable the diagnosis of and surveillance for exotic virulent strains of WNV in Australia. The rapid diagnostic platform chosen was a red blood cell (RBC) agglutination assay that was originally patented and commercialised by AGEN Biomedical Ltd. The RBC agglutination assay reagent consists of the Fab region of a human erythrocyte-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) conjugated to the epitope of interest (in this instance, a WNV-specific peptide). This bi-functional reagent causes the agglutination of the patient’s erythrocytes in the presence of WNV-specific antibody in the patient’s serum. Traditionally, these RBC agglutination reagents have been produced by chemical conjugation. However, a potentially easier and cheaper method involves the linking of the gene encoding the erythrocyte-specific antibody to that encoding the epitope to create a recombinant version of the bi-functional agglutination reagent through expression using prokaryotic or eukaryotic systems. To identify potential differential epitopes, 18 mAbs to WNV (NY99 strain) prM and envelope (E) proteins were assessed. One mAb (17D7) differentially recognised WNV and KUNV in ELISA and maintained recognition of its corresponding epitope upon reduction and carboxymethylation of the viral antigen, suggesting a continuous (linear) epitope. Using synthetic peptides, the epitope was mapped to a 19 amino acid sequence (WN19: E147-165) encompassing the WNV NY99 E protein glycosylation site at position 154. An amino acid substitution at position E156 of many KUNV strains abolishes this glycosylation moiety. The inability of WNV-positive horse and mouse sera to bind the synthetic peptides indicated that glycosylation was required for recognition of peptide WN19 by WNV-specific antibodies in sera. N-linked glycosylation of WN19 was achieved through expression of the peptide as a C-terminal fusion protein in mammalian cells and specific reactivity of WNV-positive horse sera to the glycosylated WN19 fusion protein was shown by Western blot. Additional sera collected from horses that had been infected with Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV), which is similarly glycosylated at position E154 and exhibits high sequence identity to WNV NY99 in this region, also recognised the recombinant peptide. In contrast, no reactivity with the recombinant peptide was observed by sera from horses infected with the unglycosylated WNV subtype, KUNV. Failure of most WNV- and MVEV-positive horse sera to recognise the epitope as a deglycosylated fusion protein (75% and 100% respectively) confirmed that the N-linked glycan is important for antibody recognition of the peptide. Together, these results suggest that the induction of antibodies to the WN19 epitope during WNV infection of horses is generally associated with E protein glycosylation of the infecting viral strain. To assess the feasibility of using peptide WN19 in a rapid immunoassay, the peptide was recombinantly fused to a RBC (glycophorin)-specific single chain antibody (scFv) using previously published constructs which were developed for the bacterial expression of similar bi-functional reagents. To facilitate glycosylation of peptide WN19, the genes for the bi-functional agglutination reagents were subsequently cloned into eukaryotic expression vectors. An additional set of constructs were also produced in which the genes for the variable regions of the anti-RBC antibody were cloned into a vector for the secreted expression of an intact, humanised IgG1 molecule. Stable cell lines were produced for each of these constructs and secreted up to 700 ng/mL glycophorin-reactive antibody. The secreted recombinant protein could be harvested directly from the cell culture medium and used in RBC agglutination assays, where these bi-functional agglutination reagents could be cross-linked either with mAb 17D7 or by anti-peptide WN19 antibodies present in WNV-positive horse serum. The WNV NY99 prM protein was also identified as a useful marker of WNV-infection in horses, as well as a putative antigen to differentiate equine WNV NY99 and KUNV infections using Western blot. Two anti-WNV prM mAbs were also generated in this study and will be extremely valuable in future studies. Preliminary analysis of the prM epitope(s) bound by these mAbs and WNV-immune sera indicate that the binding site(s) is likely to be localised to pr and is conformational.

West Nile Virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne pathogen of global significance. It is active on several continents and is responsible for recent outbreaks of fever and fatal encephalitis in humans and horses. While highly virulent strains have been reported in Europe, North, Central and South America, only a benign subtype of WNV (Kunjin virus – KUNV) occurs in Australia. However, virulent, exotic WNV strains are seen as a significant threat to Australia due to the ease with which this virus can move between continents and the presence of suitable vectors and hosts already within Australia. KUNV and WNV subtypes are antigenically and genetically very closely related and cross-react in traditional serological tests. This cross-reactivity makes it very difficult to differentiate between KUNV and WNV infections using standard serological tests. The aim of this thesis was to identify immunogenic epitopes unique to KUNV or WNV and to use these epitopes in the development of a rapid assay that would enable the diagnosis of and surveillance for exotic virulent strains of WNV in Australia. The rapid diagnostic platform chosen was a red blood cell (RBC) agglutination assay that was originally patented and commercialised by AGEN Biomedical Ltd. The RBC agglutination assay reagent consists of the Fab region of a human erythrocyte-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) conjugated to the epitope of interest (in this instance, a WNV-specific peptide). This bi-functional reagent causes the agglutination of the patient’s erythrocytes in the presence of WNV-specific antibody in the patient’s serum. Traditionally, these RBC agglutination reagents have been produced by chemical conjugation. However, a potentially easier and cheaper method involves the linking of the gene encoding the erythrocyte-specific antibody to that encoding the epitope to create a recombinant version of the bi-functional agglutination reagent through expression using prokaryotic or eukaryotic systems. To identify potential differential epitopes, 18 mAbs to WNV (NY99 strain) prM and envelope (E) proteins were assessed. One mAb (17D7) differentially recognised WNV and KUNV in ELISA and maintained recognition of its corresponding epitope upon reduction and carboxymethylation of the viral antigen, suggesting a continuous (linear) epitope. Using synthetic peptides, the epitope was mapped to a 19 amino acid sequence (WN19: E147-165) encompassing the WNV NY99 E protein glycosylation site at position 154. An amino acid substitution at position E156 of many KUNV strains abolishes this glycosylation moiety. The inability of WNV-positive horse and mouse sera to bind the synthetic peptides indicated that glycosylation was required for recognition of peptide WN19 by WNV-specific antibodies in sera. N-linked glycosylation of WN19 was achieved through expression of the peptide as a C-terminal fusion protein in mammalian cells and specific reactivity of WNV-positive horse sera to the glycosylated WN19 fusion protein was shown by Western blot. Additional sera collected from horses that had been infected with Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV), which is similarly glycosylated at position E154 and exhibits high sequence identity to WNV NY99 in this region, also recognised the recombinant peptide. In contrast, no reactivity with the recombinant peptide was observed by sera from horses infected with the unglycosylated WNV subtype, KUNV. Failure of most WNV- and MVEV-positive horse sera to recognise the epitope as a deglycosylated fusion protein (75% and 100% respectively) confirmed that the N-linked glycan is important for antibody recognition of the peptide. Together, these results suggest that the induction of antibodies to the WN19 epitope during WNV infection of horses is generally associated with E protein glycosylation of the infecting viral strain. To assess the feasibility of using peptide WN19 in a rapid immunoassay, the peptide was recombinantly fused to a RBC (glycophorin)-specific single chain antibody (scFv) using previously published constructs which were developed for the bacterial expression of similar bi-functional reagents. To facilitate glycosylation of peptide WN19, the genes for the bi-functional agglutination reagents were subsequently cloned into eukaryotic expression vectors. An additional set of constructs were also produced in which the genes for the variable regions of the anti-RBC antibody were cloned into a vector for the secreted expression of an intact, humanised IgG1 molecule. Stable cell lines were produced for each of these constructs and secreted up to 700 ng/mL glycophorin-reactive antibody. The secreted recombinant protein could be harvested directly from the cell culture medium and used in RBC agglutination assays, where these bi-functional agglutination reagents could be cross-linked either with mAb 17D7 or by anti-peptide WN19 antibodies present in WNV-positive horse serum. The WNV NY99 prM protein was also identified as a useful marker of WNV-infection in horses, as well as a putative antigen to differentiate equine WNV NY99 and KUNV infections using Western blot. Two anti-WNV prM mAbs were also generated in this study and will be extremely valuable in future studies. Preliminary analysis of the prM epitope(s) bound by these mAbs and WNV-immune sera indicate that the binding site(s) is likely to be localised to pr and is conformational.

West Nile Virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne pathogen of global significance. It is active on several continents and is responsible for recent outbreaks of fever and fatal encephalitis in humans and horses. While highly virulent strains have been reported in Europe, North, Central and South America, only a benign subtype of WNV (Kunjin virus – KUNV) occurs in Australia. However, virulent, exotic WNV strains are seen as a significant threat to Australia due to the ease with which this virus can move between continents and the presence of suitable vectors and hosts already within Australia. KUNV and WNV subtypes are antigenically and genetically very closely related and cross-react in traditional serological tests. This cross-reactivity makes it very difficult to differentiate between KUNV and WNV infections using standard serological tests. The aim of this thesis was to identify immunogenic epitopes unique to KUNV or WNV and to use these epitopes in the development of a rapid assay that would enable the diagnosis of and surveillance for exotic virulent strains of WNV in Australia. The rapid diagnostic platform chosen was a red blood cell (RBC) agglutination assay that was originally patented and commercialised by AGEN Biomedical Ltd. The RBC agglutination assay reagent consists of the Fab region of a human erythrocyte-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) conjugated to the epitope of interest (in this instance, a WNV-specific peptide). This bi-functional reagent causes the agglutination of the patient’s erythrocytes in the presence of WNV-specific antibody in the patient’s serum. Traditionally, these RBC agglutination reagents have been produced by chemical conjugation. However, a potentially easier and cheaper method involves the linking of the gene encoding the erythrocyte-specific antibody to that encoding the epitope to create a recombinant version of the bi-functional agglutination reagent through expression using prokaryotic or eukaryotic systems. To identify potential differential epitopes, 18 mAbs to WNV (NY99 strain) prM and envelope (E) proteins were assessed. One mAb (17D7) differentially recognised WNV and KUNV in ELISA and maintained recognition of its corresponding epitope upon reduction and carboxymethylation of the viral antigen, suggesting a continuous (linear) epitope. Using synthetic peptides, the epitope was mapped to a 19 amino acid sequence (WN19: E147-165) encompassing the WNV NY99 E protein glycosylation site at position 154. An amino acid substitution at position E156 of many KUNV strains abolishes this glycosylation moiety. The inability of WNV-positive horse and mouse sera to bind the synthetic peptides indicated that glycosylation was required for recognition of peptide WN19 by WNV-specific antibodies in sera. N-linked glycosylation of WN19 was achieved through expression of the peptide as a C-terminal fusion protein in mammalian cells and specific reactivity of WNV-positive horse sera to the glycosylated WN19 fusion protein was shown by Western blot. Additional sera collected from horses that had been infected with Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV), which is similarly glycosylated at position E154 and exhibits high sequence identity to WNV NY99 in this region, also recognised the recombinant peptide. In contrast, no reactivity with the recombinant peptide was observed by sera from horses infected with the unglycosylated WNV subtype, KUNV. Failure of most WNV- and MVEV-positive horse sera to recognise the epitope as a deglycosylated fusion protein (75% and 100% respectively) confirmed that the N-linked glycan is important for antibody recognition of the peptide. Together, these results suggest that the induction of antibodies to the WN19 epitope during WNV infection of horses is generally associated with E protein glycosylation of the infecting viral strain. To assess the feasibility of using peptide WN19 in a rapid immunoassay, the peptide was recombinantly fused to a RBC (glycophorin)-specific single chain antibody (scFv) using previously published constructs which were developed for the bacterial expression of similar bi-functional reagents. To facilitate glycosylation of peptide WN19, the genes for the bi-functional agglutination reagents were subsequently cloned into eukaryotic expression vectors. An additional set of constructs were also produced in which the genes for the variable regions of the anti-RBC antibody were cloned into a vector for the secreted expression of an intact, humanised IgG1 molecule. Stable cell lines were produced for each of these constructs and secreted up to 700 ng/mL glycophorin-reactive antibody. The secreted recombinant protein could be harvested directly from the cell culture medium and used in RBC agglutination assays, where these bi-functional agglutination reagents could be cross-linked either with mAb 17D7 or by anti-peptide WN19 antibodies present in WNV-positive horse serum. The WNV NY99 prM protein was also identified as a useful marker of WNV-infection in horses, as well as a putative antigen to differentiate equine WNV NY99 and KUNV infections using Western blot. Two anti-WNV prM mAbs were also generated in this study and will be extremely valuable in future studies. Preliminary analysis of the prM epitope(s) bound by these mAbs and WNV-immune sera indicate that the binding site(s) is likely to be localised to pr and is conformational.

West Nile Virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne pathogen of global significance. It is active on several continents and is responsible for recent outbreaks of fever and fatal encephalitis in humans and horses. While highly virulent strains have been reported in Europe, North, Central and South America, only a benign subtype of WNV (Kunjin virus – KUNV) occurs in Australia. However, virulent, exotic WNV strains are seen as a significant threat to Australia due to the ease with which this virus can move between continents and the presence of suitable vectors and hosts already within Australia. KUNV and WNV subtypes are antigenically and genetically very closely related and cross-react in traditional serological tests. This cross-reactivity makes it very difficult to differentiate between KUNV and WNV infections using standard serological tests. The aim of this thesis was to identify immunogenic epitopes unique to KUNV or WNV and to use these epitopes in the development of a rapid assay that would enable the diagnosis of and surveillance for exotic virulent strains of WNV in Australia. The rapid diagnostic platform chosen was a red blood cell (RBC) agglutination assay that was originally patented and commercialised by AGEN Biomedical Ltd. The RBC agglutination assay reagent consists of the Fab region of a human erythrocyte-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) conjugated to the epitope of interest (in this instance, a WNV-specific peptide). This bi-functional reagent causes the agglutination of the patient’s erythrocytes in the presence of WNV-specific antibody in the patient’s serum. Traditionally, these RBC agglutination reagents have been produced by chemical conjugation. However, a potentially easier and cheaper method involves the linking of the gene encoding the erythrocyte-specific antibody to that encoding the epitope to create a recombinant version of the bi-functional agglutination reagent through expression using prokaryotic or eukaryotic systems. To identify potential differential epitopes, 18 mAbs to WNV (NY99 strain) prM and envelope (E) proteins were assessed. One mAb (17D7) differentially recognised WNV and KUNV in ELISA and maintained recognition of its corresponding epitope upon reduction and carboxymethylation of the viral antigen, suggesting a continuous (linear) epitope. Using synthetic peptides, the epitope was mapped to a 19 amino acid sequence (WN19: E147-165) encompassing the WNV NY99 E protein glycosylation site at position 154. An amino acid substitution at position E156 of many KUNV strains abolishes this glycosylation moiety. The inability of WNV-positive horse and mouse sera to bind the synthetic peptides indicated that glycosylation was required for recognition of peptide WN19 by WNV-specific antibodies in sera. N-linked glycosylation of WN19 was achieved through expression of the peptide as a C-terminal fusion protein in mammalian cells and specific reactivity of WNV-positive horse sera to the glycosylated WN19 fusion protein was shown by Western blot. Additional sera collected from horses that had been infected with Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV), which is similarly glycosylated at position E154 and exhibits high sequence identity to WNV NY99 in this region, also recognised the recombinant peptide. In contrast, no reactivity with the recombinant peptide was observed by sera from horses infected with the unglycosylated WNV subtype, KUNV. Failure of most WNV- and MVEV-positive horse sera to recognise the epitope as a deglycosylated fusion protein (75% and 100% respectively) confirmed that the N-linked glycan is important for antibody recognition of the peptide. Together, these results suggest that the induction of antibodies to the WN19 epitope during WNV infection of horses is generally associated with E protein glycosylation of the infecting viral strain. To assess the feasibility of using peptide WN19 in a rapid immunoassay, the peptide was recombinantly fused to a RBC (glycophorin)-specific single chain antibody (scFv) using previously published constructs which were developed for the bacterial expression of similar bi-functional reagents. To facilitate glycosylation of peptide WN19, the genes for the bi-functional agglutination reagents were subsequently cloned into eukaryotic expression vectors. An additional set of constructs were also produced in which the genes for the variable regions of the anti-RBC antibody were cloned into a vector for the secreted expression of an intact, humanised IgG1 molecule. Stable cell lines were produced for each of these constructs and secreted up to 700 ng/mL glycophorin-reactive antibody. The secreted recombinant protein could be harvested directly from the cell culture medium and used in RBC agglutination assays, where these bi-functional agglutination reagents could be cross-linked either with mAb 17D7 or by anti-peptide WN19 antibodies present in WNV-positive horse serum. The WNV NY99 prM protein was also identified as a useful marker of WNV-infection in horses, as well as a putative antigen to differentiate equine WNV NY99 and KUNV infections using Western blot. Two anti-WNV prM mAbs were also generated in this study and will be extremely valuable in future studies. Preliminary analysis of the prM epitope(s) bound by these mAbs and WNV-immune sera indicate that the binding site(s) is likely to be localised to pr and is conformational.

West Nile Virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne pathogen of global significance. It is active on several continents and is responsible for recent outbreaks of fever and fatal encephalitis in humans and horses. While highly virulent strains have been reported in Europe, North, Central and South America, only a benign subtype of WNV (Kunjin virus – KUNV) occurs in Australia. However, virulent, exotic WNV strains are seen as a significant threat to Australia due to the ease with which this virus can move between continents and the presence of suitable vectors and hosts already within Australia. KUNV and WNV subtypes are antigenically and genetically very closely related and cross-react in traditional serological tests. This cross-reactivity makes it very difficult to differentiate between KUNV and WNV infections using standard serological tests. The aim of this thesis was to identify immunogenic epitopes unique to KUNV or WNV and to use these epitopes in the development of a rapid assay that would enable the diagnosis of and surveillance for exotic virulent strains of WNV in Australia. The rapid diagnostic platform chosen was a red blood cell (RBC) agglutination assay that was originally patented and commercialised by AGEN Biomedical Ltd. The RBC agglutination assay reagent consists of the Fab region of a human erythrocyte-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) conjugated to the epitope of interest (in this instance, a WNV-specific peptide). This bi-functional reagent causes the agglutination of the patient’s erythrocytes in the presence of WNV-specific antibody in the patient’s serum. Traditionally, these RBC agglutination reagents have been produced by chemical conjugation. However, a potentially easier and cheaper method involves the linking of the gene encoding the erythrocyte-specific antibody to that encoding the epitope to create a recombinant version of the bi-functional agglutination reagent through expression using prokaryotic or eukaryotic systems. To identify potential differential epitopes, 18 mAbs to WNV (NY99 strain) prM and envelope (E) proteins were assessed. One mAb (17D7) differentially recognised WNV and KUNV in ELISA and maintained recognition of its corresponding epitope upon reduction and carboxymethylation of the viral antigen, suggesting a continuous (linear) epitope. Using synthetic peptides, the epitope was mapped to a 19 amino acid sequence (WN19: E147-165) encompassing the WNV NY99 E protein glycosylation site at position 154. An amino acid substitution at position E156 of many KUNV strains abolishes this glycosylation moiety. The inability of WNV-positive horse and mouse sera to bind the synthetic peptides indicated that glycosylation was required for recognition of peptide WN19 by WNV-specific antibodies in sera. N-linked glycosylation of WN19 was achieved through expression of the peptide as a C-terminal fusion protein in mammalian cells and specific reactivity of WNV-positive horse sera to the glycosylated WN19 fusion protein was shown by Western blot. Additional sera collected from horses that had been infected with Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV), which is similarly glycosylated at position E154 and exhibits high sequence identity to WNV NY99 in this region, also recognised the recombinant peptide. In contrast, no reactivity with the recombinant peptide was observed by sera from horses infected with the unglycosylated WNV subtype, KUNV. Failure of most WNV- and MVEV-positive horse sera to recognise the epitope as a deglycosylated fusion protein (75% and 100% respectively) confirmed that the N-linked glycan is important for antibody recognition of the peptide. Together, these results suggest that the induction of antibodies to the WN19 epitope during WNV infection of horses is generally associated with E protein glycosylation of the infecting viral strain. To assess the feasibility of using peptide WN19 in a rapid immunoassay, the peptide was recombinantly fused to a RBC (glycophorin)-specific single chain antibody (scFv) using previously published constructs which were developed for the bacterial expression of similar bi-functional reagents. To facilitate glycosylation of peptide WN19, the genes for the bi-functional agglutination reagents were subsequently cloned into eukaryotic expression vectors. An additional set of constructs were also produced in which the genes for the variable regions of the anti-RBC antibody were cloned into a vector for the secreted expression of an intact, humanised IgG1 molecule. Stable cell lines were produced for each of these constructs and secreted up to 700 ng/mL glycophorin-reactive antibody. The secreted recombinant protein could be harvested directly from the cell culture medium and used in RBC agglutination assays, where these bi-functional agglutination reagents could be cross-linked either with mAb 17D7 or by anti-peptide WN19 antibodies present in WNV-positive horse serum. The WNV NY99 prM protein was also identified as a useful marker of WNV-infection in horses, as well as a putative antigen to differentiate equine WNV NY99 and KUNV infections using Western blot. Two anti-WNV prM mAbs were also generated in this study and will be extremely valuable in future studies. Preliminary analysis of the prM epitope(s) bound by these mAbs and WNV-immune sera indicate that the binding site(s) is likely to be localised to pr and is conformational.

See front file / Health Studies / DLITT ET PHIL (HEALTH ST)

This thesis deals with infectious diseases transmitted by arthropods in the Czech Republic in period of 2002 - 2011. Meeting the objectives and answer the research questions, I managed using secondary analysis of reported cases infectious diseases transmitted by arthropods in the information system for reporting and recording of infectious diseases - EPIDAT and literature review and subsequent analysis of scientific articles. Important additional informations were provided by State Veterinary Institute in Prague and the National Reference Laboratory for arboviruses in Ostrava. Thesis does not deal with number of single values, but it is focused on epidemiological severity of analyzed cases, severity of clinical course and risk of introducing infection in the Czech Republic. Theoretical part of the thesis describes selected arboviruses infections. Tick-borne encephalitis is one of the most important diseases transmitted by arthropods in our surroundings. Number of reported cases of tick-borne encephalitis was quite constant in monitored period 2002 - 2011, according to my research and statistical verification. Highest morbidity was in 2006. The same year the highest incidence of disease Tick-borne encephalitic was reported in region of Vysočina. This number is far closer to number of reported cases in region of South Bohemia which was the most affected region thought the entire period. Prevention exists against tick-borne encephalitis. It is vaccination which is recommended for people staying in natural foci of infection in the Czech Republic and abroad. In the Czech republic becomes more important West Nile fever. Increased incidence of this disease is recorded in the USA, but also in many European countries (eg Greece, Hungary, Italy) in recent years. One of the goals of this thesis is to characterize the surveillance of West Nile fever in the Czech republic. Monitoring antibody titer against West Nile virus in the serum of horses is one of the basic elements of surveillance of this disease in our country. 5 samples of the blood serum was increased titers of antibodies to West Nile virus. Various geographic distribution of horses and high specific antibody titers indicate increasing activity of West Nile virus. Clinical disease of horses not being recorded in the Czech republic. In the field of human medicine have been reported three imported cases of West Nile fever. Other arboviruses infections, that appeared in our country, is dengue disease and viral disease Chikungunya. In the monitored period there were a total of 98 reported cases of imported disease. Most cases were imported from India. Three cases of Chikungunya disease were reported in 2006 in connection with a stay on the island of Mauritius, where was the epidemic at this time. People can travel freely and there is the risk of importing diseases from the tropics and subtropics. Some infections transmitted by arthropods are in areas where it was previously absent recently. Prevention is essential. Specific and non-specific prevention. Another important element of prevention is strict adherence to methods for surveillance of disease.Viral infections transmitted by arthropods are among the most important emergent infectious diseases. In addition to malaria, malnutrition and helminth infection are the largest public health problem, not only in third world countries.

abstract: Despite the arid climate of Maricopa County, Arizona, vector-borne diseases have presented significant health challenges to the residents and public health professionals of Maricopa County in the past, and will continue to do so in the foreseeable future. Currently, West Nile virus is the only mosquitoes-transmitted disease actively, and natively, transmitted throughout the state of Arizona. In an effort to gain a more complete understanding of the transmission dynamics of West Nile virus this thesis examines human, vector, and environment interactions as they exist within Maricopa County. Through ethnographic and geographic information systems research methods this thesis identifies 1) the individual factors that influence residents' knowledge and behaviors regarding mosquitoes, 2) the individual and regional factors that influence residents' knowledge of mosquito ecology and the spatial distribution of local mosquito populations, and 3) the environmental, demographic, and socioeconomic factors that influence mosquito abundance within Maricopa County. By identifying the factors that influence human-vector and vector-environment interactions, the results of this thesis may influence current and future educational and mosquito control efforts throughout Maricopa County. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Sustainability 2013

O vírus do Oeste do Nilo (VON) é um Flavivírus capaz de infectar muitas espécies de vertebrados, incluindo o homem. Embora reconhecida desde 1940, esta virose nunca havia sido descrita nas Américas, onde emergiu nos Estados Unidos ao final da década de 1990, com numerosos casos de meningoencefalite em humanos. Posteriormente, sua transmissão por transfusão de sangue e órgãos foi comprovada, levando à implantação de testes moleculares (NAT) para a triagem de doadores nos EUA e Canadá a partir de 2003. Nos anos seguintes, o VON foi sendo progressivamente detectado em países como México, Panamá e áreas do Caribe, sugerindo sua iminente introdução na América do Sul. De fato, evidências sorológicas foram reveladas em cavalos e aves na Colômbia, Venezuela, Argentina e muito recentemente no pantanal mato-grossense (em cavalos). A vigilância epidemiológica para este agente é de grande importância para a saúde pública, visto o potencial de morbimortalidade deste vírus para humanos. Sendo assim este trabalho tem o objetivo de investigar a presença do RNA do VON em amostras de doadores de sangue, pacientes com meningoencefalite ou febre de origem indeterminada e soros e amostras cerebrais de equinos. Foram analisadas 2.202 doações de sangue do Amazonas (HEMOAM), 3.144 do Mato Grosso do Sul (HEMOSUL); líquido cefalorraquidiano de 51 pacientes com suspeita de meningoencefalite viral (Hospital das Clínicas/FMUSP, São Paulo) e soro de 198 pacientes com síndrome febril aguda, negativos para Dengue e Malária (Fundação de Medicina Tropical de Manaus). Além disto, 293 amostras de soros de equinos da região do Pantanal e 63 biópsias de tecido cerebral de cavalos que foram a óbito por encefalite de etiologia desconhecida. Estas amostras foram submetidas ao teste automatizado cobas TaqScreen WNV (Roche) na plataforma cobas s201 em sistema de pool de 6 unidades (doações de sangue) ou individualmente (pacientes). Todas as amostras apresentaram amplificação satisfatória do controle da reação, porém nenhuma apresentou resultado positivo para a presença do RNA do VON. Embora já exista evidência da exposição de equinos no Brasil ao VON, não parece haver até o momento, disseminação importante deste agente entre humanos e equinos, uma vez que o RNA viral não foi detectado nem em doadores de sangue e nem em equinos, incluindo os de cidades próximas aos locais onde cavalos soropositivos foram encontrados (Corumbá MS). / The West Nile Virus (WNV) is a Flavivirus able to infect many species of vertebrates, including man. Recognized since 1940, this virus had never been described in the Americas, which emerged in the United States at the end of the 1990s, with numerous cases of meningoencephalitis in humans. Later, transmission by transfusion of blood and organs was confirmed, leading to the deployment of molecular testing (NAT) for screening of donors in the U.S. and Canada since 2003. In the following years, WNV has been progressively detected in countries like Mexico, Panama and the Caribbean areas, suggesting their imminent introduction in South America In fact, serological evidence was revealed in horses and birds in Colombia, Venezuela and Argentina and most recently in Pantanal, Mato Grosso (horses). Epidemiological surveillance for this agent is of great importance to public health, given the potential morbidity and mortality of this virus to humans. Therefore this study aims to investigate the presence of WNV RNA in samples of blood donors, patients with meningoencephalitis or fever of unknown origin and serum and brain samples from horses. We analyzed 2202 blood donations from Amazon (HEMOAM), 3144 from Mato Grosso do Sul (HEMOSUL); cerebrospinal fluid of 51 patients with suspected viral encephalitis (Hospital das Clínicas / FMUSP, São Paulo) and serum samples from 198 patients with acute febrile syndrome, negative for Dengue and malaria (Foundation for Tropical Medicine in Manaus). In addition, more 293 serum samples from horses of the Pantanal and 63 biopsies of brain tissue from horses that died of encephalitis of unknown etiology. These samples were subjected to automated cobas TaqScreen WNV test (Roche) on the platform in cobas S201with a system of 6 units pool (blood donations) or individually (patients). All samples showed satisfactory control amplification, but none showed as positive for the presence of RNA VON. Although there is already evidence in horses in Brazil of exposure to WNV, there seems to be far that an important spread of this agent between humans and horses, since the viral RNA was not detected either in blood donors or in horses, including cities near the locations where seropositive horses were found (Corumbá - MS).

Ma thèse a porté sur l’étude des activités enzymatiques impliquées dans la formation de la coiffe de deux virus à ARN: le virus du Nil Occidental (WNV) et le métapneumovirus humain (hMPV). Ces virus codent pour des enzymes assurant l’ajout de la coiffe de type-1 (m7GpppN2’Om) à l’extrémité 5’ de leur ARNm.Le domaine N-terminal de la protéine NS5 (NS5MTase) du WNV porte les activités N7- et 2’O-méthyltransférases (N7- et 2’O-MTases) et il a été proposé que NS5MTase puisse également porter l’activité guanylyltransférase (GTase). J’ai identifié in vitro des résidus clés impliqués dans l’interaction entre NS5MTase et des ARN substrats de chaque activité MTase. Nos résultats démontrent que le site de fixation de la coiffe est nécessaire lors de la 2’O-méthylation et ne l’est pas pour la N7-méthylation. En parallèle, j’ai recherché des résidus catalytiques de la GTase par la méthode de génétique inverse. Des résultats préliminaires indiquent que la mutation K29A induit un défaut de réplication. Ce résidu pourrait donc être impliqué dans l’activité GTase de NS5MTase.Concernant hMPV, j’ai effectué une analyse fonctionnelle du domaine CR-VI+ de la protéine L. J’ai démontré que CR-VI+ possède les activités N7- et 2’O-MTases et j’ai identifié les résidus impliqués dans le recrutement de l’ARNm. L’ordre de méthylation est non canonique avec la 2’O-méthylation qui précède la N7-méthylation. Enfin, j’ai également démontré que CR-VI+ possède une activité d’hydrolyse du GTP.Ce travail démontre que ces MTases possèdent 2 voire 3 des activités enzymatiques nécessaires à la formation de la coiffe, et représentent donc une cible de choix pour le développement d’inhibiteurs. / My PhD project is focus on the study of the enzymatic activities involved in the RNA capping pathway of two RNA viruses: the West Nile Virus (WNV) and the human metapneumovirus (hMPV). These viruses encode for enzymes allowing the addition of a cap-1 structure (m7GpppN2’Om) to their mRNA 5’ ends. The NS5 N-terminal domain (NS5MTase) of WNV harbours the N7- and 2’O-methyltransferase activities (N7- and 2’O-MTase); and it has been proposed that NS5MTase also bears a guanylyltransferase activity (GTase). I have identified residues involved in the NS5MTase interaction sites with their RNAs substrate. My assays demonstrate the importance of the cap-binding site for the 2’O-methylation but not for the N7-methylation. In parallel, I have tried to identify putative catalytic residues of the GTase activity by reverse genetics. Preliminary results suggest that NS5MTase K29 could be a catalytic residue.Concerning hMPV, I performed a functional analysis of CR-VI+ domain of the protein L. I demonstrated that the CR-VI+ domain harbours the N7- and 2’O-MTase activities and identified the residues involved in the mRNA recruitment. I showed that the methylation order is not canonical with the 2’O-methylation preceding the N7-methylation. Finally, I showed that the domain harbours an additional GTP hydrolysis activity, representing the first step of RNA cap formation for Mononegavirales.This work demonstrates that this MTase domains harbour 2 or 3 of the enzymatic activities required for viral RNA cap synthesis and represent attractive targets for the development of antivirals.