Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Sustainability issues and the structural over-supply of wheat in the Western Cape since the middle 1990‟s have caused the introduction of alternative crop rotation systems in the Middle Swartland, a dry-land winter cereal production area of the Western Cape. Crop rotation systems typically consist of cereals and oilseed crops and pastures. Alternative crop rotations systems are currently scientifically evaluated at the Langgewens Experimental farm. Currently more than half the cultivated area in the Swartland is still under wheat production, a third of which is wheat monoculture. An issue regarding the adoption of such a crop rotation system is the cash flow and affordability of implementing such an alternative system. The goal of this study is to determine the cash-flow implications of a shift from wheat monoculture to a crop rotation system. Typical strategies available to producers to support such a shift are investigated. The complexity of farm systems as well as the interrelationships between crops within such a crop rotation system necessitates the implementation of a systems approach. A multi-period, whole-farm budget model was constructed to capture the interrelationships of the farm system and to express the financial performance thereof in standard profitability criteria. The farm model is based on a typical farm for the Middle Swartland. The model was used to determine the expected profitability of various crop rotation systems and to evaluate alternative strategies to accommodate the shift to alternative systems. The Langgewens crop rotation trial results are used to determine expected profitability of various crop rotation systems. A wheat-monoculture system serves as basis for the shift to alternative systems with the focus on the practical implications of such as shift. The profitability calculations show that various crop rotation systems are expected to be more profitable than wheat monoculture. The most profitable system is one year canola followed by three years of wheat, followed by a wheat/medic system with Dohne Merino sheep on the medic pastures. The shift from wheat monoculture is simulated by four scenarios. The first evaluated the financial implications of a shift form monoculture to the three year wheat and one year canola system. The second simulates a shift from monoculture to a wheat/medic system within two years and using own funds. The third scenario simulate the same shift with own funding, but over a ten year period. The fourth is similar to the second, but borrowed money is used to fund the shift.Lower input costs and consistently higher yields results in higher expected gross margins for the crop rotation systems, especially with nitrogen fixing plants. The inclusion of medic and medic/clover pastures and alternative cash crops such as canola and lupins show a higher yield on investment than wheat monoculture. Insight into the factors that producers should consider was also generated by this study, concerning changes to crop rotation systems. These factors include; time period over which a shift is planned and the availability of financing options. It seems that a quicker shift, using borrowed funds, is more profitable over the longer term. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Volhoubaarheidskwessies, en die strukturele ooraanbod van koring in die Wes-Kaap, het sedert die middel 1990‟s, gelei tot alternatiewe gewasproduksiestelsels in die Swartland, ʼn droëland wintergraanproduserende area van die Wes-Kaap. Gewasproduksiestelsels bestaan tipies uit graan- en oliesaad- en weidings gewasse. Alternatiewe gewas-wisselboustelsels word wetenskaplik gevalueer op die Langgewens proefplaas. Tans is meer as die helfte van die area in die Swartland steeds onder koring produksie, ʼn derde daarvan is koring monokultuur. ʼn Bekommernis rakende die aanneem van wisselboustelsels is die kontantvloei en bekostigbaarheid van die implementering van so ʼn alternatiewe stelsel. Die doel van hierdie studie is om te bepaal wat die kontantvloei implikasies van ʼn skuif van ʼn koringmonokultuurstelsel na ʼn wisselboustelsel is. Tipiese strategieë beskikbaar aan produsente om so skuif te finansier is ook ondersoek. Die kompleksiteit van boerderystelsels en die interverwantskap tussen gewasse in ʼn wisselboustelsel noodsaak die insluiting van ʼn stelselsbenadering. ʼn Multi-periode, geheelplaasbegrotingsmodel is ontwikkel om die interverwantskap van die boerdery te verenig en finansiële prestasie uit te druk in erkende winsgewendheid kriteria. Die boerderymodel is gebaseer op ʼn tipiese plaas vir die Middel-Swartland. Die model is gebruik om die winsgewendheid van verskillende wisselboustelsels te bepaal en om verskillende strategieë te assesseer wat die oorgang van wisselboustelsel kan akkommodeer. Die Langgewens wisselbouproefdata is gebruik om die winsgewendheid van verskillende wisselboustelsels te bepaal. „n Koringmonokultuurstelsel dien as basis vir die oorskakeling na alternatiewe wisselboustelsels, met die fokus op die praktiese implikasies van so ʼn skuif. Die winsgewendheid bepaling wys dat verskeie wisselboustelsels meer winsgewend is as koring monokultuur. Die mees belowende stelsels is een jaar canola gevolg deur drie jaar koring en ʼn koring/medic stelsel met Dohne Merino skape op die medic weidings. Die oorskakeling vanaf koring monokultuur is gesimuleer deur vier scenario‟s. Die eerste scenario evalueer die finansiële implikasie van ʼn skuif van koringmonokultuur na ʼn wisselboustelsel met een jaar canola. Die tweede scenario evalueer ʼn skuif na ʼn koring medic stelsel binne twee jaar met eie fondse. Die derde scenario simuleer dieselfde skuif maar oor ʼn tien jaar tydperk, met eie fondse. Die vierde scenario simuleer dieselfde skuif na koring/medics maar oor ʼn twee jaar periode met geleende fondse. Laer insetkoste en konstante hoër opbrengste lewer hoër brutomarges vir die wisselboustelsels, veral die met stikstofbindende weidingsgewasse. Die insluiting van medic en medic/klawer weidings en alternatiewe kontantgewasse soos canola en lupiene wys ʼn beter opbrengs op kapitaal investering in vergelyking met koringmonokultuur. Bykomende daartoe verskaf die resultate van die studie insig in die faktore wat graanprodusente behoort te oorweeg wanneer ʼn oorskakeling na alternatiewe wisselboustelsels oorweeg word. Die faktore sluit in, die tydperk waaroor die oorskakeling beoog word en die beskikbare finansieringsopsies. Dit blyk dat ʼn vinniger oorskakeling, selfs teen die koste van finansiering, oor die langtermyn meer winsgewend is.

Thesis (MComm)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The protection of South Africa’s agricultural sector and in context, the wheat industry, is vital to ensure the food security and rural development of the country. The wheat industry contributes about R 4 billion to the gross value of agricultural production in South Africa and currently provides about 28 000 job opportunities. Preceded by maize, wheat is the second most important grain produced in South Africa. The phasing out of the Wheat Board in 1997, which led to the deregulation of South Africa’s wheat industry, has exposed the market price of wheat to international market forces. Post-harvest agricultural logistical services have also been transformed by the deterioration of agricultural infrastructure, leading to the employment of alternative transport and storage systems. Wheat production in South Africa has decreased significantly over the past two decades. The wheat industry is currently struggling to generate sufficient revenue for it to remain a financially viable crop. Producers are either shifting their focus to more profitable commodities or are abandoning farming altogether. It is the objective of this study to describe and define the dominant factors which influence wheat production in South Africa. This includes all the relevant post-harvest logistical activities and market related forces which influence the production volumes of wheat in South Africa. A qualitative research approach was undertaken to gather input data for the research presented. This was inclusive of liaising with producers as well as expert interviews with members in the wheat value chain. This provided unique and valuable insights into the dominant factors influencing wheat production in South Africa. The research presented in this thesis concluded that wheat production in South Africa is being negatively influenced by a decrease in the market price of wheat and a further increase in the cost of post-harvest logistical services. Furthermore the market price of wheat is being lowered by the implementation of an open market policy which allows the importation of cheap subsidized wheat. The cost of post-harvest logistical services has increased due the inefficiency of transport services resulting from a deteriorated transport infrastructure. In order to sway preference to wheat production in South Africa, government support will be required in the form of import tariffs, used to protect local farmers, and agriculture infrastructure development, which will be required to decrease the cost of post-harvest logistical services. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die beskerming van die Suid-Afrikaanse landbou-sektor en in hierdie konteks, die koringbedryf, is noodsaaklik vir die versekering van voedselsekuriteit en landelike ontwikkeling in Suid-Afrika. Die koringbedryf dra ongeveer R4 miljard tot die brutowaarde van landbouproduksie in Suid-Afrika en bied tans sowat 28 000 werkgeleenthede. Voorafgegaan deur mielies, is koring die tweede belangrikste graan wat in Suid-Afrika geproduseer word. Die uitfasering van die Koringraad in 1997, wat gelei het tot die deregulasie van Suid-Afrika se koringbedryf, het gelei tot die blootstelling van die markprys aan internasionale markverwante kragte. Na-oes landbou logistieke dienste is ook verander deur die agteruitgang van landbou-infrastruktuur, wat gelei het tot die ontwikkeling van alternatiewe vervoer- en berging stelsels. Koringproduksie in Suid-Afrika het oor die afgelope twee dekades beduidend afgeneem. Die koringbedryf sukkel tans om voldoende inkomste te genereer vir produsente. Produsente verskuif tans hul fokus na meer winsgewende kommoditeite of laat vaar boerdery heeltemal. Dit is die doel van hierdie studie om die faktore te beskryf wat koringproduksie beïnvloed in Suid-Afrika. Dit sluit in na-oes logistieke aktiwiteite en markverwante kragte wat die produksie-volumes van koring in Suid-Afrika beïnvloed. 'n Kwalitatiewe navorsingsbenadering is onderneem om insette in te samel vir die navorsing wat aangebied word. Dit sluit in onderhoude met produsente, sowel as deskundiges in die koring-waardeketting. Dit het ‘n unieke en waardevolle insig gelewer in die dominante faktore wat koringproduksie in Suid-Afrika beïnvloed. Die navorsing wat in hierdie tesis onderneem is het tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat koringproduksie in Suid-Afrika negatief beïnvloed word deur 'n afname in die markprys en 'n toename in die koste van na-oes logistieke dienste. Die markprys van koring word verlaag deur die implementering van 'n opemark beleid wat die invoer van goedkoop gesubsidieerde koring toelaat. Verder het die koste van na-oes logistieke dienste toegeneem weens die ondoeltreffendheid van vervoer, bygedra deur ‘n verswakte vervoerinfrastruktuur. Om voorkeur terug na koringproduksie in Suid-Afrika te swaai, sal dit die ondersteuning vereis van die regering deur die implementering van invoertariewe, wat beskerming sal bied vir plaaslike boere, asook landbou-infrastruktuur ontwikkeling, wat die koste van na-oes logistieke dienste sal verbeter.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Before 1930 the marketing of most agricultural products took place in a market environment. The agricultural marketing boards were establish in 1930, for example the Wheat Board and Maize Board. The Maize Board was establish in 1931 as a advisory board for the Government on marketing of maize. The need for a Maize Board was due to the shortfalls in marketing of maize. The most important shortfalls were the lack of marketing information and a mechanism to manage price risks, as well as price fluctuations. On the 2 October 1996 an Act on the Marketing of Agricultural Products Act 47 of 1996 was published in the Government Gazette. With this act the deregulation of the Agricultural Marketing Boards started. The cause of this was that agricultural products were back in a market environment. The act have specific aims, namely the increasing of market involvement for all roleplayers, the promotion of the efficiency of the marketing of agricultural products, the optimizing of export turnover for agricultural products and the strengthening of the viability of the agricultural sector. Naisbitt and Aburdene (1990:96) documented the folowing as one of the international trends (Megatrends): "The world is undergoing a profound shift from economies run by governments to economies run by markets". The efficiency of a market economy is illustrated in China: Only four percent of the arable land of China is cultivated by small farmers. The rest of the arable land is governmentowned farms. The Chinese government is slowly doing away with these government farms. The small farmers, their workers and their dependents make up 800 million people. They produced a third of the meat and milk and half of China's potatoes (Naisbitt & Aburdene, 1990:104). The producers in the Western Cape are not use to the situation as it was before 1930. The free market is an unknown territory for them. All the roleplayers in the market need to develop skills to train the producers on risk involved with this market environment. The author hope to help the process on the way with this thesis. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die bemarking van die meeste landbouprodukte het tot ongeveer 1930 in 'n markomgewing plaasgevind. Vanaf 1930 is landboubemarkingsrade ingestel, waarvan die Mielieraad en Koringraad enkeles is. Die Mielieraad is in 1931 gestig, aanvanklik as 'n adviesraad vir die Regering omtrent die bemarking van mielies. Die behoefte aan die Mielieadviesraad het ontstaan vanweë gebreke in die mark. Die vernaamste gebreke was onder andere gebrekkige markinligting, die afwesigheid van meganismes om prysrisiko mee te bestuur en prysskommelinge wat buite verhouding was. Die gevolg van die instelling van die Mielie-adviesraad was die omvorming daarvan na die Mielieraad in 1945. Die Mielieraad was beklee met statutêre bemarkingsbevoegdhede. Op 2 Oktober 1996 is die Wet op Bemarking van Landbouprodukte Wet 47 van 1996 in die Staatskoerant gepubliseer. Hierdie wet maak voorsiening vir die deregulering van die Landboubemarkingsrade. Die gevolg hiervan is dat die bemarking van Landbouprodukte weer in 'n markomgewing geplaas word soos voor 1930. Die wet het bepaalde oogmerke, naamlik die vergroting van marktoegang vir alle markdeelnemers, die bevordering van die doeltreffendheid van die bemarking van landbouprodukte, die optimalisering van uitvoerverdienste vir landbouprodukte en die versterking van die lewensvatbaarheid van die landbousektor. Die bevryding van die bemarking van landbouprodukte plaas die Suid-Afrikaanse landboubedryf midde-in 'n markomgewing. Naisbitt en Aburdene (1990:96) dokumenteer juis bogenoemde as een van die internasionale neigings ("Megatrends") wanneer hul skryf: "The world is undergoing a profound shift from economies run by governments to economies run by markets ". Die doelmatigheid van 'n markekonomie word geïllustreer deur China as 'n voorbeeld te gebruik: Slegs vier persent van die bewerkbare oppervlakte van China word bewerk as kleinboere. Die res van die bewerkbare grond word deur staatsbeheerde boerderye bewerk. Die Chinese regering is toenemend besig om weg te doen met staatsbeheerde boerdery. Die kleinboere, hulle werkers en hulle afhanklikes verteenwoordig 800 miljoen mense. Hulle produseer 'n derde van China se vleis en melk en die helfte van die aartappels verbruik, dit op slegs vier persent van die bewerkbare oppervlakte (Naisbitt & Aburdene, 1990:104). Produsente in die Wes-Kaap wat aan die omstandighede soos voor 1930 gewoond was, is dun gesaai. Daar is dus boere wat onbekend is aan 'n vrye markomgewing. 'n Groot opvoedingstaak rus op die skouers van rolspelers in die mark om produsente so op te lei en die regte leiding te gee, dat hul voorberei kan wees op al die risiko's wat saam met deregulering gekom het. Die skrywer hoop om met hierdie werkstuk 'n klein bydrae te lewer om hierdie proses aan te help.

Thesis (MAgricAdmin)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Agriculture is heavily subsidised and protected in most of the major industrial countries. Some of the effects are obvious through the heavy costs imposed on national budgets. Other effects, such as those on consumers or on overall economic efficiency, are less obvious but are nonetheless extremely important. In South Africa there has never been an attempt to calculate total government intervention in agriculture. However, this changed at the time of the negotiations for the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations under the auspices of the GATT, and the greater importance of the consumer in the designing of agricultural policies. The aim of this study is to determine whether the production of wheat in the Western Cape is economically optimal under the current policy environment. The study investigates if there was a comparative advantage in the production of wheat as of April 1999. The technique used to calculate the various indicators of comparative advantage is the Policy Analysis Matrix. This technique is used to identify the effects of policy measures on the social profitability of wheat production. The analysis used data from eight areas, and seventeen varying enterprise budgets were constructed in order to compile a representative picture of the industry's condition. The results of the analysis indicate that Western Cape wheat producers do not have a strong comparative advantage in the production of wheat for the selected areas. The reasoning behind this is complex, but is primarily a result of high levels of input use. Input prices are inflated by policy distortions in input markets, partly because of tariffs on imported inputs. The net effect of the total policy environment also had a negative effect on producers, in the sense that sub-normal profits were achieved. The future of the Western Cape and South African wheat farmer is uncertain. What is certain is that, if the wheat farmer in South Africa does not take immediate and swift action, directed at improving efficiency in current management and production techniques, and implementing some form of crop diversification, farm debt will ultimately be the demise of the farmer. As interest rates rapidly increase, and producer prices remain constant or decrease, the farmer begins to farm more for the bank than for private remuneration. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In die meeste groot industriele lande word landbou grootliks gesubsidieer en beskerm. Sommige van die effekte word weerspieël in hoë kostes in die nasionale begroting. Ander effekte soos die op verbruikers is minder vanselfsprekend, maar steeds baie belangrik. Voorheen is daar geen poging aangewend om die totale owerheidsinmenging in landbou in Suid-Afrika te bereken nie. Dit het egter verander met die onderhandelinge rondom die Uruguay Ronde van die AOTH, en die groter belangrikheid van die verbruiker in die ontwerp van landboubeleid. Die doel van hierdie studie is om te bepaal of dit ekonomies optimaal is om koring in die Wes-Kaap te produseer onder die huidige beleidsomgewing. Met ander woorde, die studie poog om te bepaal wat die vergelykende voordeel, indien enige, is by koringproduksie. Die tegniek wat gebruik is om die verskillende indikatore van vergelykende voordeel te bereken, is die Beleidsanalise Matriks of PAM. Die tegniek word gebruik om die effek van die beleid met betrekking tot koringproduksie te identifiseer. Agt produksiestreke in die Wes-Kaap is ontleed vir die doeleindes van hierdie analise. Sewentien verskillende bedryfsvertakkingsbegrotings is hiervan afgelei om sodoende 'n goeie verteenwoordigende beeld van die bedryfstoestande te kry. Die resultate van die analise toon aan dat koringproduksie in die Weskaap nie 'n sterk vergelykende voordeel het nie. Die rede hiervoor is kompleks, maar die hoë vlak van inset gebruik kan beskou word as hoofrede. Hoër insetpryse, na aanleiding van die beleidsversteuringe in insetmarkte, is deels die gevolg van invoerbeskerming in die vorm van tariewe op ingevoerde insette. Die netto effek van die totale beleidsomgewing het ook 'n negatiewe effek op die produsente gehad, veral in die sin dat subnormale winste behaal is. Die toekoms van koringboere in die Wes-Kaap en Suid-Afrika is onseker. Wat wel seker is, is dat as koringboere in Suid-Afrika nie daadwerklike en vinnige hul bestuurs- en produksieeffektiwiteit verbeter me, sal skuld toeneem en sal dit koeringboerdery se einde beteken. Soos rentekoerse vinniger toeneem en die produsenteprys konstant bly of afneem, sal boere meer aan skuld afbetaal as wat hulle uit koringboerdery kan verdien.

Soil mineral N and soil water content at planting, biomass accumulation, yield and grain quality parameters (hectolitermass and protein percentage) were measured on an unfertilized and recommended-N-application treatment during two consecutive growing seasons (1997-1998). The trials were planted in a fallow-wheat-wheat cropping system at three representative localities in the summer rainfall region of South Africa. High levels of available soil water and mineral N were measured following the fallow period preceding the start of the trials in 1997. For example, soil water content was 81.7%, 69.6%, and 78.2% of DUL at Bethlehem, Kroonstad and Petrusburg respectively. Although comparable total soil profile water contents to 1997 were measured in 1998 at all three sites, the cultivation zone (0-400 mm) had a substantially lower soil water content. This was due to erratic rainfall distribution during the fallow period, which prevented effective soil cultivation management, subsequent soil water conservation and residue decomposition. Undecomposed residue in the cultivation layer at planting appeared to affect availability of soil mineral N to the growing crop. At planting in 1998, undecomposed crop residue amounted to 53.6% at Bethlehem, 32.5% at Kroonstad and 46.9% at Petrusburg of that added at harvest in 1997. Soil mineral N was lower at planting in 1998 compared to 1997 due to decomposing residue (C:N ratio of above 73) in the cultivation zone immobilizing soil mineral N. This reduced initial growth, N accumulation, yield, and grain protein percentage without additional fertilizer N. Distribution of soil mineral N showed notable amounts in the 600-1200 mm soil layers, with limited changes over the trial period. This was linked to low root exploration of these soil layers (10-15% of total root distribution). The ratios of soil mineral NH(4+):N0(3)- for the different soil layers indicated similar values over the trial period. Climatic data for the localities indicated differences in the amount and distribution of rainfall and temperatures during the study period, which influenced crop development, yield and grain protein percentage. At Bethlehem above average in-season rainfall was measured during 1997, at Kroonstad average rainfall and at Petrusburg below average in-season rainfall. Response to applied N at the localities varied in magnitude during 1997. Nitrogen application significantly increased N concentrations of plant components, N uptake, yield and grain protein percentage, although values for all these parameters were lower in 1998 than in 1997. Indeed higher yields were produced in 1997 (mean=1.838 t ha(-1)) compared to 1998 (mean=0.980 t ha(-1)). A significant yield response to applied N was measured at the two higher yielding localities in both cropping years, but there was no significant response at the lower yielding locality. The limiting factors appeared to be the availability of soil water and residual soil mineral N. From the calculated response functions, the variables soil water content at planting, soil mineral N content at planting, in-season rainfall, and added fertilizer N explained the bulk of the variations in grain protein percentage, plant N uptake, and yields. It was concluded that the present fertilizer N recommendation system for dryland wheat production, which is based on fertilizer response curves for specific yield potentials, should be augmented by using initial soil mineral N and water contents in the profile measured prior to planting. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

Thesis (MScAgric.)--Stellenbosch University, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: After sixty years of state control, the agricultural sector in South Africa has been transformed to the so-called free dispensation, with the driving forces being market access and rules of the WTO. On the one hand, this increased the exposure of the sector, particularly at international level where interest for South African produce developed. On the other hand, transformation induced a considerable degree of price squeeze and risk in the production of certain commodities including wheat. Notwithstanding, local wheat producers like any other farmers are generally price takers, and in some cases do not have a comparative advantage in what they produce. This is worsened by policy distortions in product markets, although to a lesser extent than before. These distortions are responsible for farmers to make decisions that are neither economically efficient nor optimal in a social sense. Therefore, the uncertain future of the wheat industry, particularly in the Western Cape, including the changing business environment, urges producers to adapt quickly if they wish to stay in business. Hence, the challenge for a farmer and agricultural support organisations is to find solutions to these problems. One of the factors that can be looked into in finding solutions is to look at the demand side of the equation by taking product differentiation and market identification into account. In other words, products that carries a specific character, and a niche market where these products attain higher prices are the main objectives of this exercise. In looking at these options, it is necessary to first study the end consumer of these products. Looking at the local market first, there is a relatively small but growing market for high priced niche products, but for the most part, local consumers are looking for low cost commoditytype products. In many cases, South Africa is marginally competitive in these products and so must look at alternative markets. On the export market, on the other hand, consumers are generally more sophisticated and specific in the kind of food they demand, where they are looking for quality and tracebility, and are willing to pay a premium which can be exploited. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine whether wheat would have a comparative advantage if produced under organic management, as a system that have products with these attributes. The study first evaluates the comparative advantage of the existing industry, the so-called conventional wheat, specifically looking at the policy environment around this commodity, as these are likely to affect the potential of organic wheat. The Policy Analysis Matrix technique is used to calculate various indicators of comparative advantage and to identify the effects of policy measures with regard to wheat. The analysis used the available data for ten selected farming areas. On the other hand, organic wheat farming is not practised in the Western Cape at present. As a result, expert assessment was used to provide information based on the reference method. As the study is the comparison of two systems, the results therefore indicates that some areas of the Western Cape do not have a comparative advantage in wheat production under conventional practices, which would not be the case if produced under organic management. The reasoning underlying this is complex, but mainly traced from high levels of input use that carries a distorting effect, partly because of tariffs on imported inputs, unlike organic production which is less subject to this effect. The net effect of the whole policy environment has a negative impact on producers including those of potential organic wheat, as some policies are likely to affect this potential industry. Consequently, it is recommended that farmers must evaluate their options by looking at systems that utilise less distorted inputs, and hence higher profits like organic farming. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Na sestig jaar van staats-geheer is die landbsektor van Suid-Afrika omvorm na In sogenaamde vrye bedeling met marktoegang en die reels van die WHO as drywers. Hierdie omvorming het enersyds die blootstelling van die landbou sektor verhoog, veral in die buiteland waar belangstelling in Suid-Afrikaanse produkte toegeneem het. Aan die ander kant het die transformasie die realiteite van die prys-koste knyptang en produksierisiko, ook in die geval van koring, na yore gebring. Plaaslike koringprodusente, soos aIle ander boere, is in die algemeen prysnemers en in sommige gevalle het hulle weinig mededingende voordele in wat hulle produseer. Dit word vererger deur beleidsversteurings in produkmarkte al is die versteurings minder as in die verlede. Die versteurings gee egter steeds daartoe aanleiding dat boere soms besluite neem wat nie ekonomies of sosiaal optimaal is nie. Dit volg dus dat die onsekere toekoms van die koringbedryf, veral in die Wes-Kaap, asook die vinnig veranderende besigheidsomgewing produsente noop om vinnig by die veranderende omstandighede aan te pas indien hulle in besigheid wil bly. Die uitdaging is dus vir boere en hul ondersteuningmeganismes om oplossings vir voorgenoemde probleme te vind. Een moontlike oplossing kan gevind word deur die potensiaal van produkdifferensiasie en mark identifikasie aan die vraagkant van die vergelyking te ondersoek. Met ander woorde, die identifikasie van nis-produkte met In spesifieke karakter wat hoer pryse behaal. Ten einde sodanige produkte te identifiseer is dit nodig om die verbruiker daarvan te analiseer. In die plaaslike mark is daar In relatiewe klein maar vinnig groeiende mark vir hoewaarde nis-produkte. Dit moet egter toegegee word dat die grootste gedeelte van plaaslike verbruikers meer ge'interesseerd is in goedkoop kommoditepe produkte. In die meeste gevalle is Suid-Afrika marginaal kompeterend in hierdie produkte en moet altematiewe markte dus ondersoek word. Hierteenoor is verbruikers in sekere gedeeltes van die uitvoermark meer gesofistikeerd en spesifiek in die aard van die produkte wat verlang word. Die fokus is veral op kwaliteit en naspoorbaarheid en sodanige verbruikers is gewoonlik bereid om In premie te betaal vir produkte wat hierdie behoeftes bevredig. Die doel van hierdie studie is dus om te bepaal of organiesgeproduseerde koring In mededingende voordeel sou he indien dit aan die eienskappe van kwaliteit en naspoorbaarheid sou voldoen. In hierdie studie word die relatiewe mededingendheid van die bestaande stelsel, sogenaamde konvensionele koringproduksie, geevalueer met spesifieke verwysing na die beleidsomgewing waarbinne produksie plaasvind. Hierdie beleidsomgewing sal natuurlik ook In invloed uitoefen op die organiese produksie van koring',f 'n BeleidS}nalise ¥atriks word gebruik om verskillende indikatore van mededingende voordeel te bereken en om sodoende die invloed van die beleidsmaatreels op die koringbedryf te analiseer. Vir konvensionele produksie is bestaande data uit tien verskillende boerderygebiede gebruik. Alhoewel geen voorbeelde gevind kon word van bestaande gesertifiseerde organiese koringproduksie in die Wes-Kaap nie, is die ekspert-groep tegniek met behulp van die verwysingsmetode gebruik om die nodige data te genereer. Aangesien die studie 'n vergelyking tussen twee stelsels is, is gevind dat waar die konvensionele produksie van koring geen mededingende voordele in sekere gebiede van die Wes-Kaap geniet nie, dit weI mededingende voordele tydens organiese verbouing in hierdie gebiede geniet. Alhoewel die onderliggende redes hiervoor kompleks is, kan dit herlei word na die hoe vlakke van beleidslersteurde insette wat tydens die konvensionele produksie van koring gebruik word. Hierteenoor steun organiese produksie meer op plaasgeproduseerde insette wat die distorsies dus verminder. Die netto effek is egter dat die beleidsomgewing 'n " negatiewe impak op produsente, ingeslote potensiele organiese produsente, inhou. Gevolglik word dit aanbeveel dat produsente hul opsies moet oorweeg deur veral te fokus op stelsels, soos organiese verbouing, wat minder beleidversteurde insette gebruik en waar die winsmoontlikhede dus hoer is.

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Protein and oilseed production in the winter rainfall region of South Africa (primarily the Southern and Western Cape) is well below the potential for the area. One possible method of increasing production is to convince producers that the inclusion of protein and oilseed rotational crops will enhance the sustainability of wheat production systems. A project to investigate, quantify and elucidate the effect of canola (Brassica napus), lupins (Lupinus angustifolius) and medics (Medicago spp.) on subsequent wheat (Triticum aestivum) production as well as their influence on soil fertility in respect to nitrogen was initiated in 1999. The long- term rotational crop system experiment on Langgewens experimental farm near Malmesbury, provided the infrastructure for the project. During the 1999 and 2000 wheat-growing seasons, 50m2 plots were demarcated in wheat fields where wheat, lupins, canola or medics were produced in 1998 and 1999 respectively. Each plot was cleared of all vegetation and received no fertilizer N. In these fallow plots, soil samples were collected at three to four week intervals and the available nitrate-N and ammonium-N content of the topsoil (0-15cm depth) and the subsoil (15-30cm depth) were determined. Additional soil samples were also taken from the topsoil on 09/03/2000 after a summer fallow period. These samples were taken on plots that were subjected to a wheat crop in 1999, but were preceded by either wheat, canola, lupins or medics in 1998. The soil samples were then subjected to a 60-day incubation period at 15°C while being maintained at 75% of their water holding capacity. Mineral N was determined after 0, 3, 7, 15, 30, 45 and 60 days of incubation. Large variation in the nitrogen contents observed made it difficult to always obtain significant differences. The results of the soil investigations however indicate that the inclusion of lupins and medics in wheat cropping systems in the Swartland could help to limit the decline of mineral N in the soil profile, experienced within a growing season. This will therefore enable farmers to reduce fertilizer inputs without facing soil mineral N depletion. Plant samples were also collected from wheat plots during the 1999 growing season on three occasions (23/06/99 (growth stage 5), 5/08/99 (growth stage 15), 14/09/99 (growth stage 23)). Plots were selected to represent the same treatments as in the soil sampling procedure during the growing season of 1999 as described above. Plant and tiller numbers of a 0.25m2 sub sample from each plot were counted and leaf area was determined, whereafter the dry material was weighed. The percentage nitrogen content in the leaves and stems were subsequently determined using Near Infra-Red Spectroscopy. In terms of vegetative growth, little difference was observed. A significant increase in nitrogen content of wheat plants growing in plots where wheat and canala were grown in 1998 was observed in the second plant sampling (growth stage 15) and this was attributed to higher nitrogen topdressing. However, on the third sampling date on 14/9/1999 (growth stage 23), the difference was no longer evident. The most important conclusion to make from this study, is that farmers can probably save on fertilizer inputs when including lupins and medics in their wheat production systems, without risking poorer wheat growth. At growth stage 28, a 0.25m2 sub sample of wheat plants was removed at a randomly chosen point in each of the plots described above. Ears and grains were subsequently counted. The wheat remaining on the plots were then harvested at the end of October 1999 using a plot combine. Subsequently the yield, hectolitre mass, thousand grain mass and % crude protein was determined from samples of harvested grain from each plot. The % flour and % bran extraction were then determined whereafter the % flour protein was determined. Micro bread loafs were baked to estimate the loaf volume. Flour and dough properties were also tested using the Falling Number System, mixograph and alveograph. Wheat in cropping systems consisting of legume phases such as lupins and medics, required less nitrogen fertilizer application to achieve statistically the same yield, flour and dough properties. These crop rotations can therefore be considered as more ecologically sustainable and economically viable for the Swartland. This study was aimed at determining the effect of different crop rotations on soil fertility, and because clear soil fertility trends take time to form, this study was probably too short to obtain fully significant differences. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Proteïen- en oliesaad produksie in die winter reënval streek van Suid Afrika (hoofsaaklik die Suid- en Weskaap) is ver benede die potensiaal vir die streek. Een moontlike manier om die produksie hiervan te verhoog is om produsente in hierdie streek te oortuig dat die insluiting van proteten en oliesaad gewasse die volhoubaarheid van koring verbouingstelsels sal verhoog. Na aanleiding hiervan, is In projek in 1999 van stapel gestuur om die effek van canola (Brassica napus), lupiene (Lupinus angustifolius) en medies (Medicago spp.) op daaropvolgende koring (Triticum aestivum) produksie, asook die invloed daarvan op grondvrugbaarheid in terme van stikstofinhoud, te ondersoek. Die langtermyn wisselbouproef op Langgewens proefplaas naby Malmesbury, het as infrastruktuur vir die ondersoek gedien. Gedurende die 1999 en 2000 koring groeiseisoene is 50m2 plotte in koringkampe gekies waarop koring, canola, lupiene en medies geproduseer is in onderskeidelik 1998 en 1999. Hierdie plotte is skoon gehou van plantegroei en het ook geen stikstof in kunsmisvorm gekry nie. Met drie tot vier week intervalle is grondmonsters op hierdie plotte versamel in die bogrond (0-15cm diep) en ondergrond (15-30cm diep), waarna die beskikbare nitraat-N en ammonium-N konsentrasie bepaal is. Adissionele grondmonsters van die bogrond is ook geneem op 9/03/2000 na In somer braak periode. Hierdie monsters was geneem op persele wat blootgestel was aan In koringproduksie in 1999, maar voorafgegaan is deur koring, canola, lupiene en medies in 1998. Hierdie monsters is dan vir 60 dae geïnkubeer teen 15°C en 75% van die grond se water houvermoeë. Minerale N inhoud bepalings is gedoen na 0, 3, 7, 15, 30, 45 en 60 dae van inkubasie. Groot variasie in die minerale stikstof inhoud, het die verkryging van herkenbare tendense en konstante statistiese verskille belemmer. Die resultate wat verkry is dui egter dat die insluiting van lupiene en medies in koring produksie stelsels in die Swartland, hoër minerale N vlakke in die grond handhaaf en dit kan boere gevolglik in staat stelom kunsmis insette te besnoei sonder dat grondvrugbaarheid verswak. Op 23/06/99 (groeistadium 5), 5/08/99 (groeistadium 15) en 14/09/99 (groeistadium 23) is plantmonsters versamel van koringpersele. Hierdie persele is gekies om die behandelings van die grondmonsterontledings soos hierbo beskryf, te verteenwoordig. Plante en halms van 'n 0.25m2 area uit die persele is getel en die blaaroppervlaktes is bepaal, waarna die droëmateriaal massa van die area bepaal is. Die persentasie stikstofinhoud van die blare en stingels was daarna bepaal. In terme van vegetatiewe groei was daar nie groot verskille te bespeur nie. Betekenisvolle hoër stikstof inhoud van koringblare in plotte waar daar in die vorige jaar canola en koring verbou was, is in die tweede planttrekking (groeistadium 15) gevind en dit is toegeskryf aan die hoër stikstof kopbemesting wat daardie behandelings ontvang het. Teen die derde monsterneming op 14/09l99 (groeistadium 23), was hierdie verskille nie meer in die ontledingsdata te sien nie. Die afleiding wat van hierdie studie gemaak is, is dat boere moontlik stikstofbemesting kan verminder as hulle lupiene en medies in hulle koring produksiestelsels inbring, sonder om die risiko van swakker groei te verhoog. Op 20/10/99 (groeistadium 28) is 0.25m2 plante van elke koringperseel verwyder waarna die are en die korrels getel is. Die koring wat nog op die persele was is teen die einde van Oktober 1999 met 'n perseelstropertjie geoes. Opbrengs, hektoliter massa, duidendkorrel massa en % ru-proteïene is daarna bepaal. Volgende is die % meel en % semel ekstraksie bepaal waarna die % meelproteïene bepaal is. Mikro broodjies is ook gebak om die broodvolume te bepaal. Meel en deeg eienskappe is ook getoets met die Falling Number System, mixogram en alveogram. Koring in produksiestelsels met peulplant fases (lupien en medies in hierdie geval), het minder N toediening nodig gehad om statisties dieselfde opbrengs, meel- en deeg eienskappe te verkry. Lupien en medic gebaseerde wisselbou praktyke in die Swartland kan gevolglik as meer ekologies volhoubaar en ekonomies haalbaar bestempelword. Hierdie studie het gepoog om die invloed van wisselbou op grondvrugbaarheid te ondersoek. Sodanige veranderings neem egter tyd en daarom is dit waarskynlik nog te gou om werklike grondvrugbaarheids verskille waar te neem.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of crop rotation and soil tillage on the soil water balance and water use efficiency of wheat, canola, lupin and medics in the Swartland sub region of the Western Cape. This trail was conducted as a component study within a long-term crop rotation/tillage trial during 2012 and 2013 at the Langgewens Research Farm (33016’42.33” S; 18042’11.62” E; 191m) of the Western Cape Department of Agriculture near Moorreesburg. The experiment was laid out as a randomized complete block, with a split-plot treatment design and replicated four times. Three crop rotation systems, continues wheat (WWWW), wheat/medic/wheat/medic (WMcWMc) and wheat/canola/wheat/lupin (WCWL) were allocated to main plots. . Each main plot was subdivided into four sub-plots allocated to four tillage treatments namely: zero-till (soil left undisturbed and planted with zero-till planter), no-till (soil left undisturbed until planting and then planted with a tined no-till planter), minimum-till (soil scarified March/April and then planted with a no-till planter) and conventional tillage (soil scarified late March/early April, then ploughed and planted with a no-till planter). All straw, chaff and stubble remained on the soil surface and no-grazing was allowed on all tillage treatments. Three replicates were included in this current study. Only the no-till (NT) and conventional till (CT) were included in this current study as main tillage treatments. The volumetric soil water content was monitored at weekly intervals during the active growing season (May-October) and once a month during the fallow period (November-April) using a Diviner 2000 soil moisture meter. The Diviner 2000 was used to record the soil water content at every 100 mm depth increment up to the maximum depth of the profile. At the end of the growing season the total biomass, grain yield and quality parameters were determined. The soil water balance data calculated from the 2012 season were found to be inconclusive due to too shallow installation of soil water monitoring tubes and big variations in the depth complicating any attempt in comparing data from treatments and cropping systems. Soil water monitoring tubes was installed to a depth of 900 mm in the 2013 season. Complications during planting in the 2013 season resulted in very poor emergence in the CT sites. Weed counts revealed that only 38 % of CT sites were covered by crop, 31 % with weeds and 31 % were completely bare. The NT sites had 40 % crop coverage, 50.5 % grass weed coverage and only 9.5% bare surface. As a consequences crop rotation had no effect on the soil water balance, while the tillage treatments showed a response. The effect that tillage had on the soil water balance was clearly shown in the 2013 season, in which 79 mm more rainfall occurred than the long-term average. NT retained more soil water in the profile in the drier first half of the season when only 30 % of the total rainfall in the 2013 season occurred. There was no real difference in the soil water retention in the second half of the season where 70 % of the total rainfall in the 2013 season occurred. Crop rotation did have a positive effect on grain yield. Wheat monoculture was out performed by legume based cropping systems. This trend was also observed in the biomass production. No significant difference between tillage treatments were recorded when comparing grain yield data. However wheat mono culture was again out-performed by the McWMcW, CWLW and LWCW systems producing on average significantly higher biomass. The data from both seasons suggest that in seasons where more rainfall than the long term average occurs, there is no difference in the RUE between cropping systems or tillage practices.. This study highlighted the major effect that the prevailing weather conditions have and that the expected advantages associated with NT most likely only come into play in dry conditions when plant water availability is limited. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om die invloed van grondbewerking en gewasproduksiestelsels op die grondwaterbalans en doeltreffendheid van watergebruik te ondersoek in die koringproduserende gebied van Malmesbury. Hierdie eksperiment is uitgevoer as 'n komponentstudie binne 'n langtermyn grondbewerking/gewasrotasieproef gedurende 2012 en 2013 op die Langgewens Navorsingsplaas (33016'42 .33 'S; 18042'11 0,62' E, 191m) van die Wes-Kaapse Departement van Landbou naby Moorreesburg. Die eksperiment is uitgelê as 'n volledige ewekansige blok, met 'n gesplete perseel behandelingsontwerp met vier herhalings. Drie gewasproduksiestelsels naamlik, koring monokultuur (WWWW), koring/medic/koring/medic (WMcWMc) en koring/canola/ koring/lupiene (WKWL) is elk toegeken aan persele en vier keer herhaal. Elke hoofperseel is onderverdeel in vier subpersele en bewerkingsbehandelings is soos volg toegeken: Konvensionele bewerking (CT) - grond gebreek in Maart/April, en daarna geploeg en geplant met geen bewerkingsplanter. Minimum bewerking (MT) - grond gebreek in Maart/April en daarna geplant met 'n geen bewerkingsplanter. Geen bewerking (NT) - grond is heeltemal onversteur gelaat tot planttyd en daarna geplant met 'n geen bewerkingsplanter. Zero bewerking (ZT) - grond tot planttyd met rus gelaat en dan geplant met 'n sterwielplanter. Alle strooi, kaf en stoppels het op die grondoppervlak gebly en geen beweiding is toegelaat nie. Slegs drie herhalings is ingesluit in die huidige studie en slegs die geen bewerking (NT) en konvensionele bewerking (CT) is in die huidige studie as hoof bewerkingbehandelings ingesluit. Die volumetriese grondwaterinhoud is weekliks gemonitor tydens die aktiewe groeiseisoen (Mei - Oktober) en een keer 'n maand gedurende die braaktydperk (November - April) met behulp van 'n Diviner 2000 grondvogmeter. Die Diviner 2000 is gebruik om die grondwaterinhoud by elke 100 mm diepte tot die maksimum diepte van die profiel te bepaal. Aan die einde van die seisoen is die totale biomassa, graanopbrengs en kwaliteitparameters bepaal. Die data vir grondwaterbalans van die 2012-seisoen is buite rekening gelaat weens te vlak installering van moniteringsbuise en groot variasie in die dieptelesings wat enige poging om vergelykende data van rotasie en behandelings te verkry, bemoeilik het. Moniteringsbuise vir grondwater is geïnstalleer tot op 'n diepte van 900 mm in die 2013-seisoen. Komplikasies tydens die plantaksie in die 2013-seisoen het gelei tot 'n baie swak opkoms in die CT-persele. Slegs 38 % van die CT-persele was bedek deur die gewas en 31 % met onkruid, terwyl 31 % van die oppervlak onder CT-behandeling heeltemal kaal was. Die NT-persele het 40 % gewasbedekking, 50.5 % grasbedekking en slegs 9.5 % kaal oppervlak gehad. Dit het die poging, om die effek van wisselboustelsels op die grondwaterbalans, in die wiele gery. Alhoewel wisselbou skynbaar geen effek op die grondwaterbalans gehad het nie, het die tipe bewerking egter wel ‘n effek gehad. Die effek van grondbewerking op die grondwaterbalans het duidelik na vore gekom in die 2013-seisoen. In hierdie seisoen het 79 mm meer reën geval as die langtermyngemiddelde. Geen bewerking het meer grondwater in die droër eerste helfte van die seisoen in die profiel behou, toe slegs 30% van die totale reënval in die 2013 geval het. Daar was geen beduidende verskil in die grondwaterretensie in die tweede helfte van die seisoen toe 70% van die totale reënval in die 2013 geval het nie. Wisselbou het egter 'n positiewe uitwerking op die graanopbrengs gehad. Koring monokultuur is in opbrengsyfers geklop deur stelsels met peulplante as komponent. Hierdie tendens is ook waargeneem in die biomassaproduksie. Bewerkingsbehandelings het geen beduidende verskil in graanopbrengste tot gevolg gehad nie, hoewel die biomassaproduksie van koring monokultuur weer geklop is deur die McWMcW-, CWLW- en LWCW-stelsels. Die data van beide seisoene dui daarop dat in seisoene waar meer reën as die langtermyn gemiddelde voorkom, daar geen verskil in die RUE tussen verbouingstelsels of bewerkingspraktykes was nie. Hierdie studie beklemtoon die groot invloed wat die heersende klimaat speel en dat die verwagte voordele wat verband hou met NT waarskynlik slegs ‘n rol speel in droër jare.

Lodging poses a serious limitation to successful economic production of small grain cereals and can lead to extensive yield and quality losses. Plant growth regulators (PGR's) that reduce plant height and lodging have been employed in management systems in Europe and the United States, however, these compounds have not been evaluated on commercial cultivars of wheat, barley and oats in South Africa. Current recommendations to reduce lodging include limiting N inputs, seeding rates and critical irrigations, all of which may also limit yield potential and grain quality. The objectives of this study were to assess the effects of two common stem-elongation-inhibiting PGR's (chlormequat chloride and ethephon) on the growth, development, and agronomic characteristics of wheat, barley and oats. The aim of the study was to introduce an additional component of intensive cereal management in the form of PGR's, and to allow producers to implement intensive production practices without incurring losses due to lodging. Field trials were conducted with each of the three cereal crops in the 2003 and 2004 seasons at Vaalharts and Bethlehem. The PGR's were applied separately and in combination with each other to lodging-tolerant and -susceptible cultivars (wheat and oats) at different stages of development (tillering, elongation, flag leaf stage). The PGR's were also tested in combination with different levels of N (barley) applied at the haulm elongation stage, the flag leaf stage, or both. The PGR chlormequat produced negligible effects on plant height, lodging, yield, or quality components in all of the tested cultivars . Ethephon and the PGR combination successfully reduced plant height (by 120 to 150mm) and lodging (by 25 to 94%) when applied to the lodging susceptible cultivars of wheat and oats at the flag leaf stage or as a split application to the barley cultivar "Puma" (plant height and lodging reduced by 180 to 230mm and 83 to 92% respectively). Effects on grain yield were variable, ranging from occasional reductions (by 3 t ha(-1) and improvements (by 1 t ha(-1) with the barley, and no effects with the wheat and oats. Wheat quality parameters such as protein content and hectolitre mass were improved by 2 and 4% respectively. However, the nature of the responses was highly dependent on the times of application with later applications producing the greatest positive effects on quality, yield and lodging reductions. Additionally, ethephon and the PGR combination allowed higher levels of N to be employed without increases in lodging of barley. Generally, ethephon and the PGR combination applied at the flag leaf stage of growth are suitable anti-lodging tools for small grain cereal production and should be employed as an insurance measure against lodging in intensive management systems. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

The Russian wheat aphid (RWA) (Diuraphis noxia Kurdjumov) is one of the important insect pests of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and other grasses. To date, there are four RWA biotypes identified in South Africa. The virulent biotypes emerged, partly due to climate change and new genetic variations within populations of RWA; hence there is a need to improve host-plant resistance, as an effective control measure. Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) accession Cereal Introduction (CItr) 2401 is known to be resistant to all RWA biotypes worldwide. The goal of this study was to use a backcrossed near-isogenic line (NIL) BC5F5 mapping population, developed from a cross between CItr 2401 and susceptible Kavkaz, to identify and validate single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers linked to the resistance phenotype in CItr 2401. This was achieved by (i) conducting a preliminary study that evaluated the suitability of simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers previously reported in literature for discriminating stacked RWA resistance genes and, (ii) employing SNP markers for the first time in a RWA resistance study as a future alternative to the widely used SSR markers. None of the tested SSR markers showed potential use in marker-assisted selection (MAS). The mapping population was phenotypically evaluated for RWA resistance using the four South African biotypes, viz. RWASA1, RWASA2, RWASA3 and RWASA4. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed significant (P<0.001) differences of genotypes after confirming the normality of residuals and homogeneity of variance. The Illumina iSelect 9,000 wheat SNP platform was used to genotype the two crossing parents and a selection of 24 NIL genotypes from the mapping population. Eight SNP markers found to be linked to the phenotype were converted to breeder-friendly and high-throughput Kompetitive allele-specific polymerase chain reaction (KASP) markers. The designed KASP markers were validated on the two crossing parents, the 24 NIL sent for SNP genotyping, on the mapping population and on the preliminary study genotypes for their effectiveness. The KASP assays developed in this study will be useful for stacking the RWA resistance from CItr 2401 with other Dn genes effective against the RWA. / Life and Consumer Sciences / M. Sc. (Life Sciences)