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The important aspect of speaking in an L2 classroom is well-known for language acquisition to occur. But what happens when students, for whatever reason, are unwilling to communicate. In that case, teachers must apply different pedagogical practices to support them. With this in mind, this degree project essay aims to investigate the English syllabus in upper-secondary school in Sweden to explore what recommendations teachers are given to increase learners’ willingness to communicate orally. The analysis of the English syllabus is done using a constructed framework based on previous research on the best pedagogical practices to increase students’ willingness to communicate and explore if there is an alignment between the two. The findings show that the most often-included suggestions aligned with international best practices are: connecting the teaching to students’ knowledge and experiences, providing students with linguistic competence, and providing students with different interactional activities with different purposes. The essay will further give some pedagogical recommendations and future research directions.

Willingness to communicate (WTC) in a second language (L2) is crucial to the development of communicative speaking skills. This study is a cross-sectional investigation of the role in models of second language (L2) willingness to communicate of three personality variables hitherto underresearched in the L2 field: extroversion, ego permeability (one's capacity to tolerate ambiguity), and perceived distance from one's core persona. A sample of 252 Japanese university students responded to a set of instruments used to measure individual difference variables and personality variables; the instruments were drawn from the fields of L2 acquisition and psychology as well as a 5-item instrument designed to measure perceived distance in a series of participatory L2 speaking activities. Confirmatory factor analysis, Rasch analysis, and structural equation modeling were utilized to validate the respective instruments. The International Posture instrument was best represented by a two-factor configuration consisting of Intergroup Approach-Avoidance Tendency and Intercultural Friendship Orientation, while the L2 Communicative Confidence was altered to consist of three factors (L2 Anxiety, Perceived L2 Communicative Competence, and Extroversion). The hypothesized additions of Ego Permeability and Perceived Distance failed to improve the measurement models, and the original Ego Permeability variable functioned poorly in this context. The MacIntyre and Charos (1996) model had marginal fit to the data even after undergoing considerable respecification. The models of Yashima (2002) and Yashima, Zenuk-Nishide, and Shimizu (2004) were found to have good fit as originally conceptualized, but the addition of Extroversion and paths from International Posture and L2 Communicative Anxiety improved the fit of both models. Collectively, the results indicate that extroversion plays an important role in models of L2 WTC and that the basic models of Yashima and colleagues are robust. These findings provide crucial insights into the process of L2 WTC, an important factor in the students' acquisition of communicative competence. / CITE/Language Arts

In the context of language instruction and learning, L2 willingness to communicate (WTC) is a relevant factor in learners’ language use. It is viewed as a volitional process influenced by individual, social, linguistic, and situationally dependent factors. Foundational research focuses on either trait or state WTC-influencing factors as separate entities. Current research considers the dynamic relationship that occurs between the two though less research exists on how WTC manifests in classroom interaction. This study investigates such differences by examining learners’ self-reported, perceived trait WTC and situational state WTC. It treats WTC as a dynamic entity which is shaped by learners’ investment in language learning and the identity they take on as language learners. It considers the relationship of WTC to its three most influential trait variables: motivation, L2 perceived competence, and L2 anxiety. It presents findings of additional variables influencing state WTC. Data were comprised of questionnaire surveys, focal participant interviews, and classroom observations. Quantitative data consisted of 39 participants, and qualitative data consisted of 12 focal participants. The importance of the present study lies in its investigation of WTC in relation to trait and state factors, and its stance that investment in L2 learning is a key factor in fostering classroom WTC. Finally, it explores how WTC can be positively fostered to optimize the learner’s language experience. / Spanish

This study was an investigation of students' Readiness for L2 Group Work and its relationship to Willingness to Communicate in L2 Group Work in a Japanese university. Readiness for L2 Group Work is defined as learners' self-perception of the degree to which they are prepared cognitively and affectively for L2 group work. It consists of Communication Confidence in L2 Group Work and Beliefs about L2 Group Work. Two versions of the same questionnaire were administered to approximately 750 students with two English proficiency levels in the Communication and the Language and Culture courses at the beginning and end of the 2005 spring semester. A factor analysis identified six factors: Communication Apprehension in L2 Group Work, Self-perceived Communicative Confidence in L2 Group Work, Positive Beliefs about the Value of Group Work, Negative Traditional Instruction Orientation, Beliefs of Group Work Usefulness, and Willingness to Communicate in L2 Group Work. First, the descriptive statistics and the 2 × 2 ANOVA results for both questionnaires showed that the Communication course students had significantly higher Readiness for L2 Group Work than the Language and Culture students. However, there was also a statistically significant Level and Course interaction, which was caused by the lower proficiency Communication course students who displayed higher Radiness for L2 Group Work than their higher proficiency counterparts, and the higher proficiency Language and Culture students who showed higher Readiness for L2 Group Work than their lower proficiency counterparts. Second, the mixed between-within-subjects ANOVA results showed that the participants had significantly higher Readiness for L2 Group Work at the end than at the beginning of the course. The Level and Course interaction was statistically significant for the same reason as mentioned above. Finally, structural equation modeling showed that Willingness to Communicate in L2 Group Work was influenced by Beliefs about L2 Group Work via Communication Confidence in L2 Group Work. This study contributes a new concept, Readiness for L2 Group Work, to the group work literature. Further, the structural model specifies the relationship between Readiness for L2 Group Work and Willingness to Communicate in L2 Group Work. / CITE/Language Arts

In this longitudinal study, I investigate changes in Japanese high school English learners' motivation over time, and whether the initial individual differences and the changes in those differences over time predict their final English achievement and overall academic achievement in high school. A questionnaire, which was developed by drawing on the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (Gardner, 1985b), the self-determination-theory scale (e.g., Noels, Pelletier, Clément, & Vallerand, 2000), and the willingness-to-communicate scale (e.g., McCroskey, 1992), was administered to 190 students three times at the beginning of each academic year of high school; follow-up interviews were conducted with 13 selected students. The questionnaire data were analyzed using the Rasch rating scale model, ANOVAs, and the latent growth curve modeling. The major findings include the following. First, twelve motivational constructs were identified. Second, significant differences were found over time for Attitudes Toward Learning English, Desire to Learn English, and Motivational Intensity; the other constructs were stable across time. Third, the students' average motivational profile was characterized by high External Regulation and Instrumental Orientation, and low Willingness to Communicate with Strangers across time. Fourth, Motivational Intensity, Attitudes Toward Learning English, and Intrinsic Motivation appear to directly affect both English achievement and overall academic achievement. The interview data were transcribed and analyzed qualitatively. The major findings include the following. First, the students' motivation seemed to be temporarily raised or lowered by `motivation-fluctuating factors' (e.g., test results), but it was stabilized by motivation-stabilizing factors (e.g., past travel and learning experiences). Second, in the face of university entrance examinations, the students' negative feelings toward examination English seemed to decrease their motivation, whereas positive attitudes toward examination English later in high school seemed to enhance motivation. Third, the students had a growing awareness of the need for practical and communicative English skills in the future. However, this awareness did not lead to greater willingness to communicate probably because of various interfering factors. Other interview results provided an in-depth understanding of and supporting evidence for some of the questionnaire results. Implications for researchers, school administrators, and teachers are provided. / CITE/Language Arts

Språkinlärning är inte alltid problemfri för elever. Ett problem som kan uppstå är språklig ängslan som gör att språkinlärning förknippas med negativa känslor. Språklig ängslan kan påverka elever långt fram i livet och även påverka andra områden om de inte uppmärksammas i tid. Examensarbetet Tysta elever inom engelskundervisning syftar till att undersöka hur lärarna i studien resonerar kring begreppet språklig ängslan, elevers motivation till att prata engelska och hur lärarna tror att elever påverkas av lärarens inställning till ämnet. Undersökningen genomfördes med enkäter som publicerades på internet. Svaren på enkäterna kategoriserades och tolkades för att sedan kopplas till MacIntyres teori -willingness to communicate (WTC). Resultatet av undersökningen visade att även om inte alla lärare kände till begreppet språklig ängslan så hade nästan samtliga upplevt konsekvenserna av denna ängslan. Enligt lärarna är motivation och glädje viktiga komponenter i engelskundervisning och kan locka ängsliga elever till att prata engelska. Att elever påverkas av lärarens inställning till ämnet är något lärarna i studien är överens om. I de fall läraren har dåliga erfarenheter som påverkar inställningen negativt kan denna erfarenhet vändas till något positivt om läraren är medveten om sin inställning och använder den på ett genomtänkt sätt. Fortsatt forskning inom området kan vara att mer utförligt undersöka lärarens roll som motivationshöjare för språkligt ängsliga elever. / <p>Engelska</p>

The potentially beneficial role of classroom codeswitching, or the use of the first language (L1) in foreign language (FL) classroom settings, is gradually becoming acknowledged in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) research. However, researchers call for the construction of a framework, which indicates when this use is beneficial for language learning and when it is not. In an attempt to contribute to the construction of this framework, the present study investigates whether codeswitching can be used as a tool within task-based learning settings for the development of second language (L2) oral fluency. It is hypothesised that by allowing learners to codeswitch during task completion, their willingness to communicate (WTC) is enhanced because the function of that switching is likely to be mainly the metalanguage needed to complete the task. Previous research has also suggested that task repetition might lead to greater fluency. However, both teachers and learners may be sceptical of the value of repetition without some form of feedback on the first task attempt. This study sought to explore therefore the value of task repetition with feedback (TR+). By repeating the task with feedback that recycles metalanguage into the L2, it is hypothesised that learners will learn to move to a state of less reliance on their L1, while simultaneously achieving the overall aim of tasks, which is effective L2 communication. With increased WTC and L2 metalanguage, extensive L2 oral practice will facilitate the proceduralisation processes needed for fluency development. In short, the pedagogical package of TR+ on recycled language is tested in the present study as a potential contributor to oral fluency. The thesis begins by relating these themes with the context of Cyprus through teacher interviews. It becomes evident through these interviews that the activities taking place in this context are not tasks in the sense researchers intended. Following the setting of the context, the interactions of 75 primary school learners of English (11-12-year-olds) practising TR+ are analysed qualitatively. This analysis determines whether the package can lead to enriched output on the second attempt. In addition, there is a quasi-experimental aspect to the study. The students were allocated in three groups, each testing a different package. The codeswitching group was allowed to switch to Greek while completing the tasks and had their L1 metalanguage recycled into the L2 when they repeated the tasks. The English-only group completed the tasks strictly under L2 conditions and repeated them with feedback on accuracy. The comparison group completed the tasks once with no language instructions. Oral production tests, used as pre- and post-tests, partly support the hypothesis by suggesting that WTC is enhanced with the incorporation of codeswitching, but no evidence supports fluency development. Nevertheless, when comparing TR+ with no task repetition, the data indicate that TR+ leads to greater fluency. It is suggested that a larger and longer intervention would have allowed more time for fluency to be developed when codeswitching was incorporated. As for task-based learning, it is suggested that TR+ is a more viable way to move forward in real classroom contexts, particularly those with young learners. Furthermore, the results of the present study indicate that this package works better with learners of a certain proficiency level.