Os silos metálicos cilíndricos de chapa corrugada e cobertura cônica são as unidades mais utilizadas no Brasil para o armazenamento de produtos granulares. As principais ações variáveis que atuam sobre os silos são as pressões devidas aos produtos armazenados e ao vento, sendo esta ação crítica quando o silo se encontra vazio. Devido à grande eficiência estrutural da forma cilíndrica e à resistência elevada do aço, estas estruturas são leves e delgadas e, portanto, suscetíveis a perdas de estabilidade local e global e arrancamento. Com a finalidade de avaliar estes efeitos foram realizados estudos teóricos e experimentais sobre as ações do vento em silos. O trabalho foi desenvolvido com ensaios de modelos aerodinâmicos e aeroelásticos em um túnel de vento na Universidade de Cranfield, Inglaterra, com o objetivo de determinar os coeficientes aerodinâmicos no costado e na cobertura. Os resultados mostram que os valores dos coeficientes recomendados pela Norma Brasileira de vento, NBR 6123 (1990), são adequados para o costado. Para a cobertura cônica, como não são especificados pela NBR, são recomendados valores dos coeficientes aerodinâmicos determinados nos ensaios. Conclui-se também que a colocação externa das colunas é a favor da segurança e que o uso de anéis enrijecedores no costado é indicado e muito importante para a estabilidade local e global da estrutura do silo. / The steel cylindrical silos made of corrugated sheets with conical roofs are the most used units to the storage of granular materials. The main silo loads are the pressures due to the stored material and to the wind, being this action the critical one when the silo is empty. Due to the high efficiency of the cylindrical form and to the high strength of the steel, these structures are thin and light-weight and, as a consequence, susceptible to the loss of local and global stability and to the pull out of the structure. With the aim to assess these effects related to the wind loading in silos, some theoretical and experimental studies were conducted. The work was carried out with aerodynamic and aeroelastic models tested in a boundary layer wind tunnel in the University of Cranfield, England, with the objective to determine the aerodynamic coefficients of the cylinder and the conical roof. The results show that the coefficients of the Brazilian Code of wind loads, NBR 6123 (1990), are adequate to the cylinder. The coefficients to the conical roof are suggested based on our tests, considering that there are no values specified by the NBR. As well it is concluded that the outside columns is on the side of safety and it is indicated the use of wind rings attached to the cylinder, which are very important to the local and global stability of the silo structure.

Buildings and other infrastructures located in the coastal regions of the US have a higher level of wind vulnerability. Reducing the increasing property losses and causalities associated with severe windstorms has been the central research focus of the wind engineering community. The present wind engineering toolbox consists of building codes and standards, laboratory experiments, and field measurements. The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 7 standard provides wind loads only for buildings with common shapes. For complex cases it refers to physical modeling. Although this option can be economically viable for large projects, it is not cost-effective for low-rise residential houses. To circumvent these limitations, a numerical approach based on the techniques of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has been developed. The recent advance in computing technology and significant developments in turbulence modeling is making numerical evaluation of wind effects a more affordable approach. The present study targeted those cases that are not addressed by the standards. These include wind loads on complex roofs for low-rise buildings, aerodynamics of tall buildings, and effects of complex surrounding buildings. Among all the turbulence models investigated, the large eddy simulation (LES) model performed the best in predicting wind loads. The application of a spatially evolving time-dependent wind velocity field with the relevant turbulence structures at the inlet boundaries was found to be essential. All the results were compared and validated with experimental data. The study also revealed CFD’s unique flow visualization and aerodynamic data generation capabilities along with a better understanding of the complex three-dimensional aerodynamics of wind-structure interactions. With the proper modeling that realistically represents the actual turbulent atmospheric boundary layer flow, CFD can offer an economical alternative to the existing wind engineering tools. CFD’s easy accessibility is expected to transform the practice of structural design for wind, resulting in more wind-resilient and sustainable systems by encouraging optimal aerodynamic and sustainable structural/building design. Thus, this method will help ensure public safety and reduce economic losses due to wind perils.

A computer program for the analysis of loads on buildings is developed. The program determines wind loads, earthquake loads, and snow loads according to the ASCE 7-93 Standard Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE 7-93). The program is developed using the object-oriented programming methodology and runs on the Microsoft Windows 95 graphical environment. It is a valuable and useful tool for determining loads on buildings. / Master of Engineering

Wind storms pose dangerous threats to human lives and are an enormous drain on the economy. Their damage to buildings usually starts with the failure of structural components that are subjected to excessive wind loads. In this dissertation, we investigate the characteristics of extreme loads on low-rise structures through analysis of full-scale and numerical data. We also use numerical simulations to evaluate different approaches to control the separated flow over a surface-mounted prism with the objective of reducing extreme pressure coefficients or loads on its surface. In the first part, we use a probabilistic approach to characterize peak loads as measured on a subject house during Hurricane Ivan on 2004. Time series of pressure coefficients collected on the roof of that house are analyzed. Rather than using peak values, which could vary due to the stochastic nature of the data, a probabilistic analysis is used to determine the probability of non-exceedence of specific values of pressure coefficients and associated wind loads. The results show that the time series of the pressure coefficients follow a three-parameter Gamma distribution, while the peak pressure follows a two-parameter Gumbel distribution. The results of the analysis are contrasted with the design values. In the second part, we perform numerical simulations of the flow over a surface-mounted prism as a simplified example for the flow over a low-rise structure. A Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) code is developed to solve the unsteady two-dimensional incompressible Navier-Stokes equations of the flow past the prism. The pressure coefficients are then computed on the prism surface in order to assess the wind loads. The code is written on a parallel platform using the Message Passing Interface (MPI) library. We use the simulations to study the effects of inflow disturbances on the extreme loads on structures. The sensitivities of peak loads on a surface mounted prism to variations in incident gust parameters are determined. Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS) is applied to obtain different combinations of inflow parameters. A non-intrusive polynomial chaos expansion is then applied to determine the sensitivities. The results show that the gust enhances the destabilization of the separation shear layer, forces it to break down and moves it closer to the roof of the prism. As for the sensitivities, the results show that the extreme loads are most sensitive to the transverse amplitude of the disturbance. Because the separated flow over sharp edges is responsible for the extreme pressure peaks, we investigate the use of active and passive control strategies to reduce wind loads. The studied active flow control strategies include blowing, suction, and synthetic jets. We implement them by using different flux injections, different slot locations and different angles. Investigation of the possible peak pressure reduction for two Reynolds numbers is performed. For Re = 1000, a reduction by nearly 50% of the peak pressure is obtained. For Re = 10, 000, the highest achieved reduction is nearly 25%. For passive control, we mount a flexible membrane on the top of the prism. In a two-dimensional framework, the membrane equation is modeled by a forced string equation. This mechanical equation is coupled with the DNS solver and integrated in time using a fourth order Hamming predictor corrector scheme. The results show that this strategy is as efficient as the active control approach, in terms of reducing extreme loads, for Re = 10, 000. / Ph. D.

Over the past thirty years, extensive research has been conducted with the objective of reducing wind damage to structures. Wind tunnel simulations of wind loads have been the major source of building codes. However, a simple comparison of pressure coefficients measured in wind tunnel simulations with full-scale measurements show that the simulations, in general, underpredict extreme negative pressure coefficients. One obvious reason is the lack of consensus on wind tunnel simulation parameters. The wind in the atmospheric surface layer is highly turbulent. In simulating wind loads on structures, one needs to simulate the turbulent character besides satisfying geometric and dynamic similitudes. Some turbulence parameters that have been considered in many simulations include, turbulence intensities, integral length scales, surface roughness, and frequency spectrum. One problem with these parameters is that they are time varying in the atmospheric boundary layer and their averaged value, usually considered in the wind tunnel simulations, cannot be used to simulate pressure peaks. In this work, we show how wavelet analysis and time-scale representation can be used to establish an intermittency factor that characterizes energetic turbulence events in the atmospheric flows. Moreover, we relate these events to the occurrence of extreme negative peak pressures. / Ph. D.

The full-scale value of the Reynolds number associated with wind loads on structures is of the order of 10^7. This is further complicated by the high levels of turbulence fluctuations associated with strong winds. On the other hand, numerical and wind tunnel simulations are usually carried out at smaller values of Re. Consequently, the validation of these simulations should only be based on physical phenomena derived with tools capable of their identification. In this work, two physical aspects related to extreme wind loads on low-rise structures are examined. The first includes the statistical properties and prediction of pressure peaks. The second involves the identification of linear and nonlinear relations between pressure peaks and associated velocity fluctuations. The first part of this thesis is concerned with the statistical properties of surface pressure time series and their variations under different incident flow conditions. Various statistical tools, including space-time correlation, conditional sampling, the probability plot and the probability plot correlation coefficient, are used to characterize pressure peaks measured on the top surface of a surface-mounted prism. The results show that the Gamma distribution provides generally the best statistical description for the pressure time series, and that the method of moments is sufficient for determining its parameters. Additionally, the shape parameter of the Gamma distribution can be directly related to the incident flow conditions. As for prediction of pressure peaks, the results show that the probability of non-exceedence can best be derived from the Gumbel distribution. Two approaches for peak prediction, based on analysis of the parent pressure time series and of observed peaks, are presented. The prediction based on the parent time series yields more conservative estimates of the probability of non-exceedence. The second part of this thesis is concerned with determining the linear and nonlinear relations between pressure peaks and the velocity field. Validated by analytical test signals, the wavelet-based analysis is proven to be effective and accurate in detecting intermittent linear and nonlinear relations between the pressure and velocity fluctuations. In particular, intermittent linear and nonlinear velocity pressure relations are observed over the nondimensional frequency range fH/U<0.32. These results provide the basis for flow parameters and characteristics required in the simulation of the wind loads on structures. / Ph. D.

As forças devidas ao vento variam espacial e temporalmente e consequentemente provocam esforços de torção em edifícios. A magnitude desses esforços depende basicamente da forma do edifício, de sua altura e estrutura, da influência da vizinhança e da direção do vento. As normas técnicas geralmente negligenciam a importância da torção. A versão atual da norma brasileira de forças devidas ao vento (NBR 6123) não possui uma abordagem aplicável para modos de vibração torcionais. Verificando a falta de recomendações da norma brasileira a respeito dos efeitos dinâmicos da torção em edifícios, este trabalho apresenta uma metodologia para a estimativa do momento torçor devido ao vento, a qual contempla tanto a parcela média quanto a parcela flutuante da solicitação. Para sua calibração utilizaram-se dados de 19 edifícios altos ensaiados no túnel de vento do Laboratório de Aerodinâmica das Construções com o método High Frequency Pressure Integration (HFPI), bem como dados da literatura técnica. A análise dos resultados mostrou que as excentricidades das forças de arrasto para cálculo do momento torçor apresentadas na NBR 6123 são adequadas na estimativa dos efeitos estáticos para edificações com efeitos de vizinhança mas tendem a subestimar a solicitação nos casos sem efeito de vizinhança. Assim, propuseram-se novos valores de excentricidades baseadas na análise da base de dados. Finalmente, apresentou-se uma metodologia para estimativa dos momentos torçores estáticos equivalentes, a qual foi comparada com os valores fornecidos pelo HFPI e constatou-se que a proposta fornece valores adequados. / Wind loads change spatially and temporally consequently they induce torsional moments on buildings. These moments are affected by building shape and structure, by interfering effects of nearby buildings and wind direction. The importance of torsional loads is usually neglected by most codes. Indeed, dynamic torsional response is not presented on current Brazilian Wind Loads Code (NBR 6123). Therefore, a procedure to determine torsional dynamic response of buildings subjected to turbulent wind action is proposed. Experimental data of 19 buildings are used to improve the reliability of proposed procedure. These experimental tests were performed in boundary layer wind tunnel of Aerodynamic Laboratory using the High Frequency Pressure Integration (HFPI) technique. About torsional loads, results have shown that drag forces eccentricities present on the NBR 6123 are reliable when neighboring effects are considered, but they underestimate torsion when neighboring effects are not considered. New eccentricities values are proposed. Finally, a procedure to estimate the torsional static equivalent moment is presented and it agrees well with HFPI results. The average relative error between the results determined by the proposed formulae and the experimental data obtained by the HFPI shows the reliability and applicability of the proposed formulation to the design of isolated and nonisolated buildings.

In recent years, especially in the crowded city-centers where land prizes have become extremely high, tall buildings with more than 30 floors have started to be designed and constructed in Turkey. On the other hand, the technical improvements have provided the opportunity of design and construction of more slender structures which are influenced by the wind actions more. If the building is flexible, wind can interact with it so the wind induced oscillations can be significantly magnified. In order to analyze the response of such buildings under wind effects, wind tunnel tests are accepted to be the most powerful tool all over the world. In this study, a series of tests were performed in Ankara Wind Tunnel on a model building in the shape of a rectangular prism. For the similitude of flow conditions, passive devices were designed. The response of the model building was measured through a high frequency base balance which was designed specifically for this case study. Through the tests, the effects of turbulence intensity, vortex shedding and wind angle of attack on the response of the building were questioned. Finally, the results were compared with the results of various technical specifications about wind.

As forças devidas ao vento variam espacial e temporalmente e consequentemente provocam esforços de torção em edifícios. A magnitude desses esforços depende basicamente da forma do edifício, de sua altura e estrutura, da influência da vizinhança e da direção do vento. As normas técnicas geralmente negligenciam a importância da torção. A versão atual da norma brasileira de forças devidas ao vento (NBR 6123) não possui uma abordagem aplicável para modos de vibração torcionais. Verificando a falta de recomendações da norma brasileira a respeito dos efeitos dinâmicos da torção em edifícios, este trabalho apresenta uma metodologia para a estimativa do momento torçor devido ao vento, a qual contempla tanto a parcela média quanto a parcela flutuante da solicitação. Para sua calibração utilizaram-se dados de 19 edifícios altos ensaiados no túnel de vento do Laboratório de Aerodinâmica das Construções com o método High Frequency Pressure Integration (HFPI), bem como dados da literatura técnica. A análise dos resultados mostrou que as excentricidades das forças de arrasto para cálculo do momento torçor apresentadas na NBR 6123 são adequadas na estimativa dos efeitos estáticos para edificações com efeitos de vizinhança mas tendem a subestimar a solicitação nos casos sem efeito de vizinhança. Assim, propuseram-se novos valores de excentricidades baseadas na análise da base de dados. Finalmente, apresentou-se uma metodologia para estimativa dos momentos torçores estáticos equivalentes, a qual foi comparada com os valores fornecidos pelo HFPI e constatou-se que a proposta fornece valores adequados. / Wind loads change spatially and temporally consequently they induce torsional moments on buildings. These moments are affected by building shape and structure, by interfering effects of nearby buildings and wind direction. The importance of torsional loads is usually neglected by most codes. Indeed, dynamic torsional response is not presented on current Brazilian Wind Loads Code (NBR 6123). Therefore, a procedure to determine torsional dynamic response of buildings subjected to turbulent wind action is proposed. Experimental data of 19 buildings are used to improve the reliability of proposed procedure. These experimental tests were performed in boundary layer wind tunnel of Aerodynamic Laboratory using the High Frequency Pressure Integration (HFPI) technique. About torsional loads, results have shown that drag forces eccentricities present on the NBR 6123 are reliable when neighboring effects are considered, but they underestimate torsion when neighboring effects are not considered. New eccentricities values are proposed. Finally, a procedure to estimate the torsional static equivalent moment is presented and it agrees well with HFPI results. The average relative error between the results determined by the proposed formulae and the experimental data obtained by the HFPI shows the reliability and applicability of the proposed formulation to the design of isolated and nonisolated buildings.

As forças devidas ao vento variam espacial e temporalmente e consequentemente provocam esforços de torção em edifícios. A magnitude desses esforços depende basicamente da forma do edifício, de sua altura e estrutura, da influência da vizinhança e da direção do vento. As normas técnicas geralmente negligenciam a importância da torção. A versão atual da norma brasileira de forças devidas ao vento (NBR 6123) não possui uma abordagem aplicável para modos de vibração torcionais. Verificando a falta de recomendações da norma brasileira a respeito dos efeitos dinâmicos da torção em edifícios, este trabalho apresenta uma metodologia para a estimativa do momento torçor devido ao vento, a qual contempla tanto a parcela média quanto a parcela flutuante da solicitação. Para sua calibração utilizaram-se dados de 19 edifícios altos ensaiados no túnel de vento do Laboratório de Aerodinâmica das Construções com o método High Frequency Pressure Integration (HFPI), bem como dados da literatura técnica. A análise dos resultados mostrou que as excentricidades das forças de arrasto para cálculo do momento torçor apresentadas na NBR 6123 são adequadas na estimativa dos efeitos estáticos para edificações com efeitos de vizinhança mas tendem a subestimar a solicitação nos casos sem efeito de vizinhança. Assim, propuseram-se novos valores de excentricidades baseadas na análise da base de dados. Finalmente, apresentou-se uma metodologia para estimativa dos momentos torçores estáticos equivalentes, a qual foi comparada com os valores fornecidos pelo HFPI e constatou-se que a proposta fornece valores adequados. / Wind loads change spatially and temporally consequently they induce torsional moments on buildings. These moments are affected by building shape and structure, by interfering effects of nearby buildings and wind direction. The importance of torsional loads is usually neglected by most codes. Indeed, dynamic torsional response is not presented on current Brazilian Wind Loads Code (NBR 6123). Therefore, a procedure to determine torsional dynamic response of buildings subjected to turbulent wind action is proposed. Experimental data of 19 buildings are used to improve the reliability of proposed procedure. These experimental tests were performed in boundary layer wind tunnel of Aerodynamic Laboratory using the High Frequency Pressure Integration (HFPI) technique. About torsional loads, results have shown that drag forces eccentricities present on the NBR 6123 are reliable when neighboring effects are considered, but they underestimate torsion when neighboring effects are not considered. New eccentricities values are proposed. Finally, a procedure to estimate the torsional static equivalent moment is presented and it agrees well with HFPI results. The average relative error between the results determined by the proposed formulae and the experimental data obtained by the HFPI shows the reliability and applicability of the proposed formulation to the design of isolated and nonisolated buildings.