This thesis is a critical review of educated women’s leadership in their emancipation in Ethiopia. Did they provide leadership and to what extent? It is to be noted that educated women’s leadership has been of great importance to women’s emancipation worldwide. Strong leadership was also the driving force behind women’s movements and feminism everywhere. However, the role of educated women in Ethiopia is hard to discern and their leadership efforts are largely invisible. On the other hand, many among the educated also lack the passion and desire to commit themselves in the fight for women’s emancipation. In this thesis I researched the settings and frameworks of women’s leadership and discussed the factors that function as limitations and/or opportunities. Overall there were more limitations than opportunities. These limitations are often historically rooted in the country’s religious, cultural, economic, political and traditional systems. And, as much as history and religion can be a source of strength and pride for many, they can also be a serious obstacle. The political regime of the Derg also scarred an entire population to the extent that despite the currently proclaimed ‘freedom’ of the EPRDF ruling party, women remain reluctant to step forward and claim their rights. The ruling party appears to appropriate women’s emancipation as a “private” interest and to use it for political gain, in the same manner as the Derg regime had done before it. Nowhere is there any sign of genuine freedom and equality for women in practice. Rhetoric reigns supreme through laws and policy documents, but they are not matched by genuine actions and concrete strategies. The traditional religious base of society is also making it more difficult to challenge autocratic tendencies of the ruling elite. The effect is that civil society is slowly being pushed to extinction, leaving the ruling party in charge as the main actor in all public services. This has serious consequences for the genuine emancipation of women in the country. The thesis finds that women’s leadership is not a luxury or personal demand, but a crucial step for the development of the country at large. It is encouraging to note that there are different sections of active women in the country waiting for strong leadership, leadership that can unite them into a movement and guide them on their unique emancipation paths. After all, it is only women themselves who, with their existing epistemic advantage, can transform their situation and change their status. / Sociology / D.Litt. et Phil. (Sociology)

This study sought to explore gender issues affecting management promotions in Malawi's health care services, utilising both qualitative and quantitative techniques in data collection and analysis. Promotion patterns were compared and contrasted for male and female managers. The study was based on the assumptions that • both men and women were aware of experiences that affected their promotion opportunities • promotion patterns showed fewer variations than did cultural, social and gender factors • male prejudices were maintained which oppressed women's promotions • increased decision-making power lowered stress about professional growth and development The findings supported the first two assumptions, but not the last two. The findings suggested that males and females encountered similar experiences concerning managerial promotions in Malawi's health care services. Factors that enhanced management successes for both males and females included management orientation and mentorship. Unclear promotion policies and procedures hindered management promotions. Information derived from this research could enable policy-makers to establish an environment that increases supportive networks and interactions between male and female managers in Malawi. Furthermore, to ensure equal opportunities in the health care services management, monitoring strategies by Malawi's Ministry of Gender, the Department of Human Resources Management and Development, and the Ministry of Health and Population need to be established and implemented. / Health Studies / D.Litt. et Phil. (Advanced Nursing Sciences)

It is argued that key to gender empowerment and the success of women in leadership is the exploration of the work-family interface which serves to enhance the understanding of issues faced by women leaders as they navigate through their domestic and management roles. It is also contended that work-family scholarship move beyond the study of objective characteristics, and the overt conscious level of functioning of the interface, to an understanding of the intra-psychic experiences of individuals. Recognising the preoccupation with the role strain perspective, it is argued that work-family scholarship adopts a more balanced view and considers the positive and negative effects of participating in multiple roles. Hence the general aim of this qualitative study was to understand the systems psychodynamics underlying the work-family interface that influence the processes of enrichment and conflict among managerial women in the public sector. In the empirical study, data was gathered using the organisational role analysis method, and analysed by means of systems psychodynamic discourse analysis. Six themes and their related subthemes were identified, namely anxiety and conflict, identity, boundary management, authority, role and task. The findings explored the manner in which these behavioural dynamics of participants, and their family and organisational systems interacted, mutually influencing each other, and shaping the way managerial women found, made and took up their domestic and management roles at the work-family interface. This led to resource generation and role enhancement, or resource depletion and role strain in the role (domestic or management). Through relatedness, projection and introjection between the systems and roles, the quality of life in one role influenced the other role, promoting enrichment and conflict at the interface. This study concluded that both enrichment and conflict occur at the interface. While participants oscillated between experiencing enrichment and conflict, some participants experienced more enrichment than conflict, while others experienced more conflict than enrichment at the work-family interface. The extent to which enrichment or conflict occurred between the systems was mediated by participants’ ability to self-contain, and/or the receiving system’s ability to serve as a “good enough” holding environment containing the anxieties experienced in the other role. / D. Litt et Phil. (Industrial & Organisational Psychology)

Thesis (MPA (Public Management and Planning))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Unemployment and poverty have an adverse effect on society and proactive and sustainable measures are needed to deal with it. Women and rural women in particular, form the most affected group when it comes to unemployment and poverty. Illiteracy and underdevelopment are the major barriers to the advancement of unemployed rural women. Women in rural settings in most cases rely on local economic development (LED) initiatives for day-to-day survival. Local government has a constitutional mandate to promote social and economic development in order to improve the quality life for the citizens of South Africa. This mandate has been followed by a number of policy documents and guidelines for LED to enable local authorities to perform this task efficiently. The concept of LED is a micro approach in that it deals directly with local issues of economic development through partnerships between communities, business, workers, development agencies and governmental agencies to promote local economy. There is a pressing need for local government to be proactive in dealing with issues of rural development and in supporting LED initiatives of rural women. The literature review covers the theoretical framework of LED through examining both international and domestic practices. The review deals with the history of LED, the LED concept, development theories, evaluation of the practices of LED, as well as participatory development, pro-poor LED, and tourism as a response to LED. It further assesses the contextual framework of LED with particular attention to South African policy and practice. The state of LED in South Africa is discussed, together with the way forward for LED. The study provides an investigation into the background of the Mandeni Municipality by looking at the demographic factors and geographical location of the area. The state of LED in Mandeni Municipality is highlighted, together with LED strategy for the Municipality, and major future development associated with LED. The study clearly portrays that there is a gap between the LED initiatives of the unemployed rural women and the Municipality. The strategic location of the Municipality facilitates future economic prospects for the area and new development proposals associated with LED. It is clear from the LED Unit structure in Mandeni Municipality that there is a lack of capacity to deal with the LED challenges and local economic initiatives. From the literature review it is clear that women are critical role players in LED because of their ability to initiate community-based economic development projects and to perform multi-task activities. It is evident that strong partnerships with various LED stakeholders working directly with low-income communities can play a meaningful role in alleviating poverty, and in the creation of employment. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Werkloosheid en armoede het vandag .n nadelige invloed op die gemeenskap en proaktiewe en volhoubare maatreels is nodig om dit hok te slaan. Wat werkloosheid en armoede betref, val vroue onder die groepe wat die meeste geraak word, veral plattelandse vroue. Ongeletterdheid en onderontwikkeling is die vernaamste hindernisse vir die vooruitgang van werklose plattelandse vroue. Vroue in .n plattelandse milieu steun sterk op plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkelingsinisiatiewe vir hulle dag tot dag oorlewing. Plaaslike regering het .n konstitusionele mandaat om maatskaplike en ekonomiese ontwikkeling te bevorder ten einde die lewenskwaliteit van burgers van Suid-Afrika te verbeter. .n Enorme behoefte bestaan dat die plaaslike regering proaktief moet optree wanneer aangeleenthede rakende plattelandse ontwikkeling en ondersteuning van plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkelings-inisiatiewe vir plattelandse vroue aangespreek word. Op beleidsvlak het Suid-Afrika sterk klem geplaas op plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkeling as maatreel om sosio-ekonomiese toestande vir plattelandse gemeenskappe te verbeter. Plattelandse vroue staar egter reuse uitdagings rondom onderontwikkeling in die gesig. Die groot probleem vir hierdie navorsing is dat die Mandeni munisipaliteit se plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkelingsprogramme, wat vroue as voorheen gemarginaliseerde en kwesbare groepe teiken, onsigbaar is. Plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkelingsinisiatiewe geskied in isolasie van die munisipaliteit en daar blyk maar .n powere vennootskap tussen die munisipaliteit en plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkelingsinisiatiewe wat deur vroue gevoer word, te wees. Die Plaaslike Ekonomiese Ontwikkelingseenheid (LED-eenheid), wat oor .n mandaat beskik vir die implementering van plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkelingsprogramme, het .n niksseggende rol in die bevordering van plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkelingsprogramme vir plaaslike werklose vroue gespeel. Daarbenewens is daar baie vroue onder die bevolking van die Mandeni-munisipaliteit en die meerderheid van hulle is werkloos. Die vernaamste doelwitte van hierdie studie was om probleme te identifiseer wat die LED-eenheid gehad het met die implementering van LED-programme vir die werklose vrou en om sy vlak van deelname, in belang van die werklose plattelandse vroue, te assesseer. Die fokusgroep-metode is tydens navorsing ingespan met die insameling van data oor die twee verskillende vroueorganisasies wat plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkelingsprojekte geinisieer het. Voorts is die onderhoud-metode tydens die studie toegepas vir die insameling van data rondom die drie munisipale amptenare en die Speaker van die munisipaliteit. Die vernaamste bevindinge van die navorsing toon duidelik dat daar .n gaping bestaan tussen LED-inisiatiewe deur die plattelandse werklose vroue en die Mandeni-munisipaliteit. Die bevindinge van die studie dui daarop dat die LED-eenheidstruktuur van die Mandeni-munisipaliteit oor onvoldoende fondse beskik en gebrek toon aan die nodige vermoe om die plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkelingsuitdagings en plaaslike ekonomiese inisiatiewe van die werklose plattelandse vroue te hanteer. Dit is duidelik dat vroue kritiese rolspelers in plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkeling is weens hulle vermoe om gemeenskapsgebaseerde ekonomiese ontwikkelingsprojekte te inisieer en hulle kennis om veelvuldige taakbedrywighede van stapel te laat loop. Ten slotte beveel die studie aan dat die LED-eenheid geherstruktureer word om die LED-agterstande binne die Mandeni-munisipaliteit aan te spreek, dat daar behoorlike koordinering van LED-programme moet wees, en dat die plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkelingsinisiatiewe vir vroue sterk deur die Mandeni-munisipaliteit gesteun moet word.

It is argued that key to gender empowerment and the success of women in leadership is the exploration of the work-family interface which serves to enhance the understanding of issues faced by women leaders as they navigate through their domestic and management roles. It is also contended that work-family scholarship move beyond the study of objective characteristics, and the overt conscious level of functioning of the interface, to an understanding of the intra-psychic experiences of individuals. Recognising the preoccupation with the role strain perspective, it is argued that work-family scholarship adopts a more balanced view and considers the positive and negative effects of participating in multiple roles. Hence the general aim of this qualitative study was to understand the systems psychodynamics underlying the work-family interface that influence the processes of enrichment and conflict among managerial women in the public sector. In the empirical study, data was gathered using the organisational role analysis method, and analysed by means of systems psychodynamic discourse analysis. Six themes and their related subthemes were identified, namely anxiety and conflict, identity, boundary management, authority, role and task. The findings explored the manner in which these behavioural dynamics of participants, and their family and organisational systems interacted, mutually influencing each other, and shaping the way managerial women found, made and took up their domestic and management roles at the work-family interface. This led to resource generation and role enhancement, or resource depletion and role strain in the role (domestic or management). Through relatedness, projection and introjection between the systems and roles, the quality of life in one role influenced the other role, promoting enrichment and conflict at the interface. This study concluded that both enrichment and conflict occur at the interface. While participants oscillated between experiencing enrichment and conflict, some participants experienced more enrichment than conflict, while others experienced more conflict than enrichment at the work-family interface. The extent to which enrichment or conflict occurred between the systems was mediated by participants’ ability to self-contain, and/or the receiving system’s ability to serve as a “good enough” holding environment containing the anxieties experienced in the other role. / D. Litt et Phil. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Government and Public Administration

In this thesis we study the interdependency of individual decisions on work and family, particularly the dynamic interaction of the marriage market and the labor market. My basic idea is that marital status affects individual labor supply decisions, and in turn, labor market condition influences marriage formation and dissolution. While these interactions are evident, the overwhelming majority of research on labor or family economics usually simplifies the individual decision-making by assuming that one of two markets outcomes is given while studying the other one. In the empirical study, endogeneity issues are troublesome, especially under the dynamic setting. My work takes a different approach. I directly model the individual decision-making, which describes how marriage market and labor market interact with each other; and matching with survey data we empirically recover the underlying economic environments that characterize the structure of the marriage market and the labor market. I further examine to what extent my model explains the observed facts. Very few studies have been conducted to explore work and family issues in this direction partly due to its complexity. The structural models, besides the conventional regression, improve our perceptions on how individuals form decisions on work and family, which have far-reaching implications on policy designs and welfare evaluations. In my thesis, I explore all these issues in three steps. In chapter 1, I explain a stylized fact that there exists a positive correlation between rising wage inequality and declining marriage rates. A two-sided matching model is developed to exploit a theoretical channel through which wage inequality affects marriage rates. My model features a steady state equilibrium in which the whole marriage market is divided into groups and only people in the same group will marry each other. Using the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) data from 1970 to 2000, my estimates indicate that a structural change occurs in the U.S. marriage market. The higher matching efficiency and declining elasticity of men suggest that the nowadays marriage market provides more chance to meet and better gender equity, though higher arrival rates also raise the outside options of getting married. Additionally, I find that wage inequality accounts for over 38% of the decline in marriage rate, which is underestimated in Gould (2003). Chapter 2 examines household dynamic labor supply after introducing bargaining between husbands and wives, which has not been thoroughly studied previously in literature. Here bargaining between husbands and wives determines the amount of husbands' earnings that are transferred to wives for their private consumption. A household search model that incorporates the intrahousehold bargaining is developed and estimated using panel data from the year 2001 Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP). My results show that the portion of household income shared by husbands for private consumption is responsive to their employment status, suggesting the existence of the bargaining between the U.S. couples. My findings also imply that the labor supply of women will increase with higher women wage and lower money transfer from husbands to wives, showing that the income effect dominates for wives. Moreover, the wage frontier of husbands is positively correlated with wives' wages and negatively correlated with husbands' earnings transferred to wives, highlighting that husbands are subject to both the income effect and intra-household bargaining, and their decisions depend on which effect dominates. In the third and the last chapter, I study household unemployment duration. Previously, most studies have addressed the topic of job search at the individual level. This chapter studies job search patterns of married couples and in particular compares couple's unemployment duration given their spousal earnings. A household search model is introduced, which includes the bargaining between husbands and wives. I use the year 2001 panel data Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) to estimate the structural model of family decisions. Our findings reveal that there exists a gender asymmetry in job search of the U.S. household: The more husbands earn, the longer wives search for a job; but the more wives earn, the sooner husbands find a job. / text

This study sought to explore gender issues affecting management promotions in Malawi's health care services, utilising both qualitative and quantitative techniques in data collection and analysis. Promotion patterns were compared and contrasted for male and female managers. The study was based on the assumptions that • both men and women were aware of experiences that affected their promotion opportunities • promotion patterns showed fewer variations than did cultural, social and gender factors • male prejudices were maintained which oppressed women's promotions • increased decision-making power lowered stress about professional growth and development The findings supported the first two assumptions, but not the last two. The findings suggested that males and females encountered similar experiences concerning managerial promotions in Malawi's health care services. Factors that enhanced management successes for both males and females included management orientation and mentorship. Unclear promotion policies and procedures hindered management promotions. Information derived from this research could enable policy-makers to establish an environment that increases supportive networks and interactions between male and female managers in Malawi. Furthermore, to ensure equal opportunities in the health care services management, monitoring strategies by Malawi's Ministry of Gender, the Department of Human Resources Management and Development, and the Ministry of Health and Population need to be established and implemented. / Health Studies / D.Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

This thesis is a critical review of educated women’s leadership in their emancipation in Ethiopia. Did they provide leadership and to what extent? It is to be noted that educated women’s leadership has been of great importance to women’s emancipation worldwide. Strong leadership was also the driving force behind women’s movements and feminism everywhere. However, the role of educated women in Ethiopia is hard to discern and their leadership efforts are largely invisible. On the other hand, many among the educated also lack the passion and desire to commit themselves in the fight for women’s emancipation. In this thesis I researched the settings and frameworks of women’s leadership and discussed the factors that function as limitations and/or opportunities. Overall there were more limitations than opportunities. These limitations are often historically rooted in the country’s religious, cultural, economic, political and traditional systems. And, as much as history and religion can be a source of strength and pride for many, they can also be a serious obstacle. The political regime of the Derg also scarred an entire population to the extent that despite the currently proclaimed ‘freedom’ of the EPRDF ruling party, women remain reluctant to step forward and claim their rights. The ruling party appears to appropriate women’s emancipation as a “private” interest and to use it for political gain, in the same manner as the Derg regime had done before it. Nowhere is there any sign of genuine freedom and equality for women in practice. Rhetoric reigns supreme through laws and policy documents, but they are not matched by genuine actions and concrete strategies. The traditional religious base of society is also making it more difficult to challenge autocratic tendencies of the ruling elite. The effect is that civil society is slowly being pushed to extinction, leaving the ruling party in charge as the main actor in all public services. This has serious consequences for the genuine emancipation of women in the country. The thesis finds that women’s leadership is not a luxury or personal demand, but a crucial step for the development of the country at large. It is encouraging to note that there are different sections of active women in the country waiting for strong leadership, leadership that can unite them into a movement and guide them on their unique emancipation paths. After all, it is only women themselves who, with their existing epistemic advantage, can transform their situation and change their status. / Sociology / D.Litt. et Phil. (Sociology)

This study sought to explore gender issues affecting management promotions in Malawi's health care services, utilising both qualitative and quantitative techniques in data collection and analysis. Promotion patterns were compared and contrasted for male and female managers. The study was based on the assumptions that • both men and women were aware of experiences that affected their promotion opportunities • promotion patterns showed fewer variations than did cultural, social and gender factors • male prejudices were maintained which oppressed women's promotions • increased decision-making power lowered stress about professional growth and development The findings supported the first two assumptions, but not the last two. The findings suggested that males and females encountered similar experiences concerning managerial promotions in Malawi's health care services. Factors that enhanced management successes for both males and females included management orientation and mentorship. Unclear promotion policies and procedures hindered management promotions. Information derived from this research could enable policy-makers to establish an environment that increases supportive networks and interactions between male and female managers in Malawi. Furthermore, to ensure equal opportunities in the health care services management, monitoring strategies by Malawi's Ministry of Gender, the Department of Human Resources Management and Development, and the Ministry of Health and Population need to be established and implemented. / Health Studies / D.Litt. et Phil. (Advanced Nursing Sciences)