The ideology of motherhood in the United States makes it seem as though motherhood is a natural role for women. The ideology holds mothers solely responsible for the well being of their children. Combined with the ideology of blaming the victim, the ideology of motherhood causes a great deal of guilt in women as mothers cannot possibly live up to the unrealistic expectations set up in the culture. In this study, I have used two case studies to illustrate the impact of the ideology of motherhood on the lives of these particular women. Utilizing the theories of Michel Foucault and Antonio Gramsci, I will show how the ideology is constructed, internalized, and enforced in the United States.

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This study developed and tested a model of midlife women's attainments, commitments and satisfactions under differing conditions of marriage and parenthood. The model proposed that life satisfaction for women is a function of three sets of influences: (1) adult status attainments, (2) home and work commitments, and (3) home and work satisfactions. These three sets of influences, in turn, are a function of three predetermined and correlated conditions: (1) health, (2) early childhood status and (3) educational attainment. The model was developed using data from a cohort of midlife women drawn from the National Survey of Families and Households. The model was then tested on subsamples from that cohort using LISREL 7. Tests of the model revealed both similarities and differences in the processes of attainment of life satisfaction for all midlife women, for those with and without husbands, and for those with and without children. In tests of the individual models, health and satisfaction with one's role at home were the primary factors influencing life satisfaction for women. Work commitment was also a significant, and negative, predictor. Tests of the model across stacked groups, however, failed to clarify specific structural differences due to marital or parental status. For women with and without husbands, differences in both the measurement and structural models across the groups were found to be statistically insignificant. For women with and without children, however, cross-group comparisons revealed significant differences in the measurement and structural models. Because of measurement differences, however, even statistically significant structural differences could not be considered meaningful estimates of variance in patterns of influence across the groups. This study provides only a beginning toward understanding the complex relations among midlife women's attainments, commitments and satisfactions. The proposed model fits the data better for women with husbands and for women without children than for other individually or jointly tested samples. Family formation appears to influence the process of attainments, commitments and satisfactions, but additional research is needed to continue to unravel the complexities of interrelationship. Yet, preliminary conclusions remind counselors and policymakers that traditional conceptions of status attainments are not the only considerations for career or life planning for women. / Ph. D.

In the present project racial differences in female achievement motivation and motivation to work were examined, and related this information to the theory that African American females, when compared to White females, are less likely to marry someone equal to themselves in the areas of education, employment, and earning potential because of an assumed shortage of suitable African-American males. It was hypothesized that African-American females would score higher on assessments of achievement motivation and motivation to work, and rate lower the likelihood of meeting and marrying a partner equal in education level, employment level, and earning potential than would White females. Data analysis supported all hypotheses. The results were discussed in the context of the female achievement motivation literature as well as the literature concerning female motivation to work.

Review of previous research on cultural differences in pain experience and/or pain behavior revealed that cultural affiliation affects pain perception and response. Unfortunately, the many inconsistent findings in the literature on cultural differences in pain experience and behavior have made interpretations and comparisons of results problematic. These inconsistent findings could be attributed to variations in acculturation level among cultural groups. The purpose of this study was to investigate cultural differences in pain experience (assessed by McGill Pain Questionnaire, the Box Scale, the Headache Pain Drawing, and the Headache Questionnaire) and pain behavior (measured by determining medication use and interference of daily functioning due to headaches) among Mexican (n = 43), Mexican American (n = 36), and Anglo American (n = 50) female chronic headache pain sufferers. The contribution of acculturation to differences in pain experience and behavior among cultural groups was measured by the Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans. The three cultural groups of women significantly differed on pain experience and pain behavior. Specifically, Mexican women experienced their headache pain more intensely, severely, and emotionally than Mexican American and Anglo American women. Furthermore, Mexican women were more willing to verbally express their pain than the other two groups. As for pain behavior, Mexican women took more medication and reported more severe inhibition of daily activities due to headaches than Mexican American and Anglo American women. Ethnic identity, ethnic pride, and language preference were factors in the acculturation process which contributed the most to women's chronic pain experience and behavior. The greatest variability occurred within the Mexican American group of women who perceived themselves as being more Mexican in attitudes and/or behaviors, but more similar to Anglo American in their pain experience and pain behavior. Results are explained using biocultural multidimensional pain theory, social learning theory, and acculturation theory.

The purpose of this research is to identify combinations of variables that most affect well-being among employed women. A hypothesized model of the stress and coping process examines the influence of situational demands on mediators, and mediators on well-being. Job and family strain, as well as coping resources such as spousal support, social support, and coping strategies were proposed to mediate between situational demands, represented by husband’s chore time, number of children, job flexibility, job hours, career stage, and job status and the outcome variable, well-being. Data from a national sample of 277 married, employed women representing dual-employed families were subjected to path analytic analyses using LISREL 7. Findings generally supported the proposed model. Results suggest that both role strain and coping resources mediated the stressor effects of situational demands on well-being. / Ph. D.

This research explored the self-concept of Chicanas in terms of their lived experiences and how those experiences influenced the shaping of their identity. It examined the multiple labels Chicanas use to self-identify and the context or situations in which they use specific labels. Moreover, it took into account the influence of gender, ethnicity, language, race, and culture on their concept of self. My study employed interpretive and collaborative research methods and included my own narrative story as part of the analytical process. It draws on a Chicana femenista (feminist) pedagogy that is heavily influenced by an Indigenous perspective as the conduit for the construction and transmission of knowledge. My objectives during the course of the study were to explore the many facets of Chicanas' experiences and challenge prevailing notions about our identity. The chief method for collecting data was interactive, dialogic interviews with five Chicana participants. During the loosely structured interviews, the women were asked to narrate their life stories as they related to the shaping of their concept of self. The women's detailed narratives and personal reminiscences as well as my own provided the data that was analyzed and interpreted to examine Chicana identity. The women were co-participants in "making sense" of the data. They provided guidance, expressed opinions, and helped to construct the meaning of their lived experiences. The results of the interpretation process indicated that culture and the intersecting factors of gender, language, age, ethnicity, and race shaped the participants' concept of self. Hence, their identity was culturally learned and mediated via their perceptions of the world. In turn, their worldview was influenced by the aforementioned factors. The women's narratives also suggested that they used multiple identity labels and that they were contextual. Thus, identity can change or evolve over the course of one's lifespan and through one's lived experiences. As such, Chicana identity is not fixed. As Chicanas we are constructing our own identity rather than allowing it to be imposed by others. Moreover, we are extending the possibility that we continually construct our identity. / Graduation date: 2004

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This study examined the relationship between perceived social support and negative mental health outcomes in battered women. Correlations between perceived social support and depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder were analyzed. Perceived social support, particularly from family members, was found to be significantly related to mental health outcomes. Results indicate that agencies that work with battered women should include social support in the assessment and intervention processes. The study utilized a quantitative survey design with a sample of 120 battered women from four domestic violence agencies throughout Riverside and San Bernardino counties. Quantitative data analysis procedures, such as multivariate analysis and logistic regression, were used to further examine variables. Samples of the instruments used in the study are included.