Thesis supervisor: Susan Birrell. Includes bibliographic references (p. 127-132).

Thesis (M.S.)--Eastern Illinois University, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 36-40).

Thesis (M.S.)--Eastern Illinois University. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 49-52).

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Wisconsin--La Crosse, 2009. / Includes bibliographical references.

Research suggests that female athletes, in particular, experience “sport-environment” pressures such as: weight, performance, and body image demands from their coaches, teammates, and judges. These influences in tandem with society’s portrayal of the thin ideal are thought to considerably increase the risk of developing disordered eating problems in this population. Although numerous studies have been conducted over the past decade on the prevalence of eating disorders and pathogenic weight control behaviors among female athletes, few have examined in detail the weight pressures that exist within the sport environment, such as whether or not (and how often) athletes are weighed by their coaches, and how athletes respond to those pressures in terms of weight management practices. In the proposed study, we will examine the weigh-in environment, weight satisfaction, weight management practices, menstrual health, and reported source of nutritional guidance. The sample includes 414 NCAA Division I female collegiate swimmers/divers and gymnasts drawn from 26 universities across the U.S. Participants anonymously completed a series of questionnaires as part of a larger study on student-athlete health and well-being. This study found that 41% of athletes were weighed, and most often by an athletic trainer in private. Despite most weigh-ins were reportedly conducted in a positive manner, the majority of the athletes who were weighed (75%) reported using at least one strategy to manage their weight prior to weigh-ins (e.g. restrict food, increase exercise). Athletes desire to lose weight, caloric intake, and menstrual cycles were not related to whether athletes were or were not weighed. The majority of athletes received qualified nutritional guidance about how to healthfully manage their weight. Overall, weighing is occurring in a more positive manner than expected; however, athletes are continuing to report using unhealthy weight management strategies at a high rate. It seems important for athletic departments to set policies regarding weighing and to continue to provide support and education to coaching and support staff regarding eating disorder identification, referral, and treatment.

The purpose of this experimental pilot study was to examine the relationship of nutrition knowledge, dietary habits, and nutrition behavior of collegiate men and women athletes at a Midwestern University (Ball State University) in Indiana. Other variables examined included demographic information. To evaluate and improve the nutrition knowledge and dietary practices among men and women Division I athletes, a series of four nutrition education classes was designed to increase nutrition knowledge and bring awareness of the specific nutritional concerns facing athletes. Subjects consisted of eighteen collegiate men and women swimmers at Ball State University in Indiana. Results indicated a four point increase (p≤0.001) in knowledge between pre and post nutrition education from 22.5 to 26.8 correct points out of 31 questions in both men and women subjects. A significant behavior change was seen in all eighteen athletes for five out of the six questions when pre and post nutrition education behavior change was measured. Nutrition education positively affected dietary habits among subjects when assessing protein and fat in men; and calcium and vegetable intake for both men and women. These specific findings suggest the effectiveness of nutrition education among collegiate athletes. / Department of Family and Consumer Sciences

There is growing concern for eating pathology and body dissatisfaction in sports; particularly, in sports that emphasize a lean body type. In 325 female collegiate swimmers/divers and gymnasts, we examined psychosocial well-being (i.e., perception of weight pressures, levels of internalization, body satisfaction, dietary intent, negative affect) at the beginning and end of an athletic season and predict their eating disorder classification at the end of their athletic season. Logistic regressions revealed that a model containing all 14 predictors at the beginning and end of an athletic season significantly predicted eating disorder classification at the end of an athletic season. Specifically, in the longitudinal logistic regression, with every one unit of increase on a measure of the pressure felt within the sport environment regarding their weight and every unit increase on a measure of their intentions to diet, respectively, the female athletes were 49% and 89% more likely to be classified in the subclinical/clinical group at the end of their sport season. Surprisingly, with every one unit of increase on a measure of sociocultural pressure to exercise, female athletes were 43% less likely to be classified in the subclinical/clinical group six months later. The cross-sectional logistic regression found that only dietary restraint was significant. Specifically, with every one unit of increase on a measure of their intentions to diet the female athletes were 3.6 times more likely to be classified in the subclinical/clinical group at the end of their sport season. The implications of this study may emphasize the importance of body healthy sport systems to reduce sport specific pressures and dieting among female collegiate athletes. Limitations of this study include self-report measures and longitudinal timeframe was only across one athletic season.

Female athletes have been established as a high-risk group for disordered eating due to the high prevalence rates of clinical (i.e., 1.9% to 19.9%) and subclinical eating disorders (i.e., 7.1% to 49.2%). To date, only a few studies have examined the long-term stability of eating disorders in collegiate female athletes, a design that will allow examination of change in prevalence rates over time. Additionally, researchers have attempted to identify psychosocial risk factors in the development of disordered eating, but short time frames (e.g., competitive season, one year) during which data was collected have limited their findings. The current study investigated the progression in prevalence of eating disorder classification (i.e., eating disordered [ED], subclinical ED, asymptomatic), pathogenic weight control behaviors (e.g., laxative use, vomiting), and the predictive ability of psychosocial risk factors (e.g., body dissatisfaction, negative affect) from the time in which female athletes were active collegiate competitors (Time 1) to a time six years later, in which the women were retired (Time 2). By Time 2, the women were categorized as asymptomatic (69.9%), subclinical ED (26.9%), and clinical ED (3.1%). The prevalence of those who were disordered (i.e., either subclinical or clinical ED) increased from 22.8% (Time 1) to 30.1% (Time 2). The athletes, both as active competitors and retired, reported using exercise and dieting/fasting as the most frequent forms of weight control, but to a much lesser degree when retired. The full model explained 14.9% to 21.1% of the variance in disordered eating categories, and correctly classified 73.6% of the athletes in the sample. Dietary intent and sadness significantly predicted their being classified in the disordered eating group. Early intervention efforts that address eating, body image concerns, proper nutrition, and how to eat healthfully when athletes are competing are important and may help to alleviate future distress. Additional clinical implications and limitations are discussed.

Title from first page of PDF document. Includes bibliographical references (p. 49-59).

Collegiate and elite female athletes have been identified as a subpopulation at heightened risk for disordered eating and pathogenic weight management practices. It was hypothesized that this increases risk may be related to sport specific pressures (such as team conducted weigh-ins), or the use and frequency of self-weighing. It appears that mandatory, team conducted weigh-ins are not salient to female athletes in regards to experiencing internalization, body image concerns, dietary restraint, negative affect, and bulimic symptomatology. Results, however, indicate that frequency of engagement in self-weighing may be influential in the engagement of disordered eating symptoms. Specifically, athletes who weighed themselves three or more times per week reported significantly more internalization of general societal ideals and athletic body ideals. For body image concerns, athletes who weighed three or more times per week reported being more concerned with their body size/shape than all others. With respect to dietary behaviors, athletes who weighed themselves three or more times per week reported engaging in significantly more caloric restriction than did those who weighed less frequently. For negative affect, the athletes who weighed themselves three or more times per week reported significantly higher levels of both anger and guilt. Finally for bulimic symptomatology, athletes who weighed themselves three or more times a week had significantly higher levels than those who weighed once or twice or not at all.