This study answers the critical question: How do women leaders experience gender equality in the South African Democratic Teachers’ Union (SADTU)? It focuses on five women leaders in the union, illuminating their experiences and evolving gender consciousness. This qualitative study addresses a gap in research on gender in teacher unions, to understand and reveal how women who have accessed previously male-dominated spaces experience gender equality. The women leaders’ experiences are a prism through which to understand the “depth” of the substantive experience of gender equality in the union. It examines how the union through its organisational bureaucracy, culture and politics shapes their experiences. Through a historical analysis of the gender and liberation struggle, I demonstrate the trajectory of achievements, challenges and visions for gender equity in South Africa within the trade union movement, noting the achievements and highlighting lost opportunities to advance gender struggles of its members. The study theorises different conceptions of feminisms and imagings of organisations to understand the women’s experiences in relation to the union and to broader society, within the culture, politics and bureaucracy of the organisation. I extended this lens by exploring differing conceptions of feminisms to understand the gendered experiences of the women leaders as they traverse life from childhood to adulthood. Conceived with the broader realm of feminist methodology, I use elements of life history research, notably in-depth interviews to produce narratives in the form of “harmonised poems” to illuminate the public and private experiences of the research participants, providing deep insights into their evolving gender consciousness. The analysis is multi-dimensional, traversing the influence of the family, school, and the historical and political contexts that shaped the women’s gender consciousness. The findings indicate that teachers’ contradictory class location, history of patriarchy and acceptance of sexual division of labour contribute to the women leaders’ experiences of gender inequality in the union. These experiences of inequality were magnified by apartheid’s1 structural and ideological roots, which shaped gender roles while simultaneously catalysing the development of gender consciousness and advancing political activism. In this regard, the family served as a crucial site of gender socialisation, while the school formally reproduced a hierarchical gendered society. At the organisational level, hierarchically bureaucratic structures maintained and reinforced particular patterns of control and power through the formal system of trade union governance in which gender oppression is institutionalised and legitimised under its banner of emancipatory politics. However, women in the organisation are by no means innocent victims of hostile patriarchal forces, but are active participants in their own oppression as they strategically comply with institutional norms. Significantly, the findings indicate that equality of opportunity for women leaders in the union does not translate into equality of outcome. This thesis contributes to the theoretical debates on evolving gendered consciousness by advancing an extended conceptual lens to interrogate women’s gendered experiences in predominantly patriarchal spaces. It identifies four domains of evolving consciousness. Starting with the divided self in the domain of home, girl children imbibe the dominant hierarchical social structures, and fixed gender roles are inscribed here. However, the family domain provides the catalyst for a developing consciousness among the women as children. The socialised self emerging in the domain of the school emphasises the gender socialisation, both overt and covert, that occurs in schools. It illuminates their evolving gender consciousness by resisting such subjugation initially as students and later as radical teachers. Progressing to the domain of the union, the women embody a strategic self in response to gender inequality in SADTU, which often takes an organisational form that contradicts its espoused policy and public pronouncements. Armed with the maturity to transcend their individualised gender consciousness, the women leaders emerge with a collective consciousness determined to break down the barriers to equality at the structural level. Finally, in the emerging collective self, the women simultaneously embody elements that constrain their individual emancipatory impulses while trajecting them to potentially higher levels of consciousness as change agents. Their willingness to embrace a shared consciousness and their call for activism indicate a shift towards heightened collective consciousness. As they move from their individual subjugated selves to their heightened collective, transformed consciousness, they express a compelling desire for collective agency to challenge structural drivers of inequality and enact change at the systemic level. / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2008.

M.Ed. (Educational Management) / This study is part of the SANPAD (Southern African Netherlands Partnership for Alternatives in Development) research project. It seeks to answer the research question, how do women principals experience curriculum leadership at schools in disadvantaged communities in the Gauteng East District? The dawn of South African democracy gave rise to many changes and awoke many dormant issues, one of which was the issue of equity in the workplace. This extended into the sphere of education. There are many women who have managed to penetrate this equity barrier and reach positions of leadership in schools. I conducted this research at three schools, which are located in disadvantaged communities in the Gauteng East District in Gauteng Province in South Africa. For this qualitative research I used observations and semi-structured interviews to elicit data from the participants. During the analysis of this data the following themes emerged: (1) exercising a successful leadership style; (2) the principal as a curriculum leader; (3) socio-economic profile of community and its impact on curriculum; (4) striking a balance between family and school and (5) stakeholder participation and support. This study reveals that women principals continue to experience challenges within school; from the community outside school and in their personal lives. Stereotyping still exists, especially in communities where men are still privileged over women. Women principals need a support structure to persevere as curriculum leaders. This research project concludes with suggestions and recommendations for future research.

M. Ed. (Educational Management) / Please refer to full text to view abstract

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This research focused on the experiences of female principals of co-ed high schools in the Western Cape. It investigated the path that their careers followed from the decision to become a teacher to ultimately being appointed as a principal and then having to lead the school. It further investigated the personal, organisational and social factors that were influential along the way. In addition, it probed the motivation and drive behind their career choice as well as the barriers and challenges encountered along the way. The researcher interviewed nine female principals. They were asked to tell their life story, with emphasis on their career route thus far. Key questions were asked, focusing on the motivation behind their career choice, whether they had been actively prepared for promotion and how their appointment was received. The interviews were transcribed in order to prepare them for data analysis. Any content that recorded experiences that contributed to their growth and development in teaching was coded accordingly. This produced a spectrum of codes. The codes were then placed into a diagram and grouped together, based on their meaning and implications. Identified groups included education and training, self-belief, work-life balance, mentorship, support and the stereotyping of women. The interconnectedness of the group was considered, together with their collective impact on the individual principals’ career route. The research findings indicated that the career route of the principals was determined by various factors on a personal level as well as on organisational and social levels. On a personal level, qualifications obtained and the influence of parents, family and own teachers played a role. This was critical in preparing the individual for the career path that was to follow. On an organisational level, opportunities taken, work ethic, mentorship and gender barriers were factors encountered. On a social level, the stereotyping of women and the changing family structure were factors that had to be contended with. Once appointed, it was found that the support from family, colleagues and learners contributed to their success. It emerged that the potential of these women had been identified early on in their careers and that they gained confidence when they were granted opportunities to learn and grow. To become a principal was in most cases never their intention but something that developed as they went about doing their work with commitment and diligence. Throughout, it remained a priority for them to invest in the lives of learners and the greatest joy was derived from seeing learners develop into young adults who were contributing to society.

Thesis (MEd (Education Policy Studies))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / Policy is generally established to provide for specific needs. In South Africa, for example, the South African Schools Act of 1996 was introduced, among other reasons, to promote democratic transformation in society, to protect the rights of all learners, parents and educators and to facilitate their acceptance of responsibility for the organisation, control and financing of schools in partnership with the state (RSA, 1996b). The SA Schools Act, in accordance with which school governing bodies are constituted, endeavours to effect greater devolution of power from the state to local communities to offer these communities greater participation in the control and management of their schools. Analysis of national and international literature, however, indicates that democratic government policy does not always deliver the desired results in practice (MacLean, 2003). Policy intention and implementation are frequently far removed from the practical reality within which they should be effecting change. Policy implementation is frequently aimed at promoting democracy and equality but, in reality, results in the maintenance and even the strengthening of existing inequalities between élite and marginalised groups. It is not always in touch with the cultural, political and economic obstacles that women in particular have to overcome to be allowed to participate at the same level as men in decision-making processes and in the exercise of power. This study endeavours to determine the real effect of such decentralisation on women as one of the most marginalised groups. During the study, personal interviews were conducted with two selected women and followed up with a questionnaire, which brought to light another dimension to the concept of empowerment: that of the women each attaching her own meaning to the concept of power, which emanates from their different backgrounds in respect of, for example, culture, education and language. Decentralisation can therefore result in different effects, depending on the meaning attached to the concept in a specific context. Women do not see power simply as the making of decisions on issues such as the formulation of policy; they see the right to power and the meaning that they themselves give to power as empowering. It can therefore be said that decentralisation as a policy involves certain textual intentions (which the policy stipulates as text) but that it also involves a contextual intention, which is influenced by different backgrounds. The very fact that women are accorded a voice in forums such as school governing bodies can in itself be experienced as empowering due to the women's own conceptualisation of it. The differences in the interpretation of and meaning attached to the concept indicate a need for research that delves deeper than simply a focus on the number of women participating in local politics. More research is necessary to investigate the circumstances and policy implications of the participation of women. Such research could investigate aspects such as different contexts and people's different interpretations and conceptualisations, which could ultimately be anticipated in policy frameworks. Due cognisance of women’s expectations in respect of the decentralisation or the redistribution of school governing powers and the position of women in such spheres could well result in a greater contribution to the empowerment of women.

This thesis examines South African policies addressing gender inequality in education management, and interrogates whether or not these policies made a difference to the career route of women principals of secondary schools. The under-representation of women in education management has been a long observed problem in many countries including South Africa. A number of initiatives have been put in place to address this issue but little improvement is seen in the South African situation in education management. The purpose was to understand why women are still under represented in school management and to learn from their experiences. The study used data from three sources. Firstly, policy documents and practices were analysed in terms of their symbolic, regulative and procedural functions. Secondly, the personal accounts of 28 women principals in KwaZulu-Natal who had been appointed after 1994 were collected through the use of extended interviews, and thirdly, interviews were conducted with key officials and members of School Governing Bodies that had participated in the selection of principals. The data generated were analysed at two levels in order to understand the factors constraining the participation of women in education management. At the micro level, I use the 'management route model' as an analytical framework that identifies the three phases women principals go through in their career route, namely anticipation, acquisition and performance (van Eck and Volman, 1996). The model reveals that factors influencing women's career paths into management are very complex and based firstly on the individual agency where women grapple with more internal issues such as professional qualifications and experience, aspirations, lack of ambition and family responsibilities. Secondly, these factors are at the organisational level where women suffer discrimination at the recruitment and selection processes, and lack of institutional support through mentoring and sponsorship. Thirdly, it is the social level, which involves the cultural discourses in which women operate. These discourses include sex role stereotypes that inform the social expectations about the role of men and women in society. On the macro level, I use feminist theory to interpret and understand the women's experiences and findings in general. The findings reveal that policy interventions put in place since 1994 to close the gender gap were mostly informed by liberal feminism that focused on affirming women in order to gain access into the school management without tackling the social practices that are defined by sex role socialisation and which therefore continue to work subtly and insidiously towards the discrimination of women. I conclude that although the liberal feminist interventions that have been put in place have been useful to some extent, the problems impeding women's full participation in education management cannot only be tackled at a policy level because this attempt leaves the most problematic social practices intact. However, I argue for policy and legal intervention as a starting point to combat the gender crisis in a society that has inherited so much inequality. While I acknowledge that women of all races in South Africa have all been negatively impacted upon by the historical and traditional values and expectations on the role of women and men in society, I argue that the situation has been worse for women of the Black African race, who suffered dual oppression in terms of gender and race. The study proposes the need to look beyond provision of legal and democratic reforms and more into social practices that prevent legal reforms from reaching the desired goals. Social structures and cultural practices that hamper the greater representation of women should be dealt with in order to allow women freedom to participate in discourses where their choice is not informed by gender subordination. / Theses (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2006.

Claims of gender discrimination by women educators in South Africa were investigated through an examination of specific issues surrounding the employment of women educators of Indian descent. These include maternity leave, housing subsidy, pension scheme, medical aid, salaries, merit awards and promotions. The study is located within the context of the general oppression of all women in society. The analysis used the sexual division of labour as its central focus. Since the subjects under investigation were members of a minority ethnic group, factors such as their cultural heritage, race, and class difference were considered an integral part of the analysis. The study assessed the validity of each of the claims of discrimination through an examination of official documentation such as the Principal's Handbook and staff circulars relating to teachers' conditions of service, regulations and occupational incentives. Wherever possible, the claims were empirically examined through an analysis of the responses obtained from a sample of educators. Cross-tabulations and Chi-square analyses were used to test the claims statistically. Participation in a union as a possible organising strategy for women educators in their challenge of gender discrimination is suggested. A list of recommendations for the amelioration of gender discrimination against women educators is presented at the end of the study. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, 1991.

Thesis (MTech(Education))--Cape Technikon, Cape Town, 1999 / Imprisonment is imposed on increasing numbers of women. Women on trial are also spending time in prisons. It is accepted that crime must be punished but it should and can simultaneously be transformed so that human potential can develop into learning opportunities. Personal interest and empathy with imprisoned women served as motivation for this study; the starting-point being a further conviction that such women have already been punished when starting to serve their sentence and that imprisonment should from then on focus on rehabilitation. The question is what learning opportunities are created for women in prisons, and if insufficient as far as individual needs are concerned, what can be done to facilitate and/or contribute to rehabilitation and the subsequent re-admittance to society upon discharge. Two empirical studies were undertaken in order to obtain the data identified in a situation analysis. A national survey was undertaken in the first place with the aid of the Chief of Training, Department of Correctional Services, in order to determine the training available. The finding provided in Chapter Two of this thesis, shows such opportunities to be rare and unstructured. In comparison with that available to male prisoners, it is indeed quite insufficient and even ineffective. In addition to this general national survey, visits were made to Western Cape prisons where ladies were held. Interviews were conducted with the latter as well as with control officers. Specific needs were identified, which, together with the first survey, enabled the researcher to make meaningful recommendations. Chapter Three of this study was devoted to programme design, a curriculum model was implemented in order 10 provide structure 10 the above data, and aspects of human reality was utilised as criterium. A summary and recommendations for improved learning opportunities for female persons complete the study. Criteria for the design of training programmes are provided and specific mention is made of the role of the National Qualification Framework and accreditation of leaming outcomes in the form of unit standards. It is hoped that the above will make a difference, not only as far as the rehabilitation of women in prisons is concerned, but also with regard to the manager(s) of the learning opportunities as well as the women to enable them to make a positive change to their living environment upon discharge

MEDEM / Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Management

Summaries in Afrikaans and English / Die Bruinvrou in die onderwys het 'n besondere rol om te vertolk veral in die !ewe van die volwassewordende kind asook in die hele skoolopset. Die doel van hierdie ondersoek was om hierdie rol te bepaal. Tersaaklike gegewens is verkry deur middel van Iiteratuurstudie, die outobiografiese teks, onderhoude asook vraelyste. Deur die inligting bekom, is vasgestel dat die omstandighede waaronder 'n groot gedcelte van die Bruinonderwyseresse werk, nie altyd gunstig is nie. Baie Bruinlccrclcrs woon in sosio-ekonomiese agtergeblewe gebiede waar misdaad en bendebcdrywighedc aan die orde van die dag is. Waardestelsels, leefstyl van die subkultuur, onvoldoende materiele versorging en gebrekkige opvoeding veroorsaak steuringe in die leerders se ingesteldheid teenoor die skool. Haar vrouwees laat die onderwyseres baie empatie toon in haar opvoedingskommunikasie met die leerder. Sy poog om toereikend na sy behoeftes om te sicn. As medcganger help sy die leerder om elke mylpaal wat hy bereik, te beskou as die begin van 'n ander. Deur haar meelewendheid word veral die milieugestremde Bruinkind se menswaardigheid erken. Baie bruinleerders het aangedui dat onderwyseresse rolmodelle vir hulle is. Sommige onderwyseresse word verplig om jarelank dieselfde graad te onderrig. Aangesien hulle so 'n betekenisvolle rol in die volwassewording van die kind speel, is dit nodig dat hulle ervaring opdoen van die verskillende grade in die skool. Die vrou is baie veelsydig en het moontlikhede wat tocreikcnd aangewend kan word in al die fasette van die skoolopset. Sy kan '11 baie belangrike bydrae lewer in die organisasie en administrasie van die skool as sy die geleentheid gebied word. Haar ingesteldheid op die menslike en die belangrikheid van gesonde verhoudinge asook haar hoe pligsbesef dui daarop dat die onderwyseres by magte is om 'n uitstekende onderwysleier te wees. Nieteenstaande die feit dat onderwyseresse volgens statistieke oorverteenwoordig is in die onderwys, is hulle onderverteenwoordig in bestuursposte. Alhoewel die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid Afrika 1996, gebaseer is op die beginsels van gelykheid en menswaardigheid, is seksisme en diskriminasie op grond van geslag nog steeds ernstige struikelblokke vir die onderwyseres op haar weg na beter vooruitsigte in die onderwys. Aanbevelings vir praktykverbetering asook verdere navorsing is gemaak. / The Coloured woman in education has a particular role to play, especially in the life of the child growing towards adulthood as well as in the school in general. The aim of this investigation is to determine that role. Relevant information had been obtained by means of literary sources, autobiographical texts, interviews and questionnaires. Having obtained this information, it was established that the circumstances in which a large proportion of Coloured female educators work, are not always favourable. Many coloured learners live in socio-economic disadvantaged areas where crime and gangsterism prevail. Value systems, lifestyles of the subculture, inadequate material care and a serious lack of education are causing disruptions of learners' inclination towards the school. Being a woman enables the female educator to show considerable empathy in her pedagogic communication with the learners. She endeavours to sufficiently provide in their needs. As pedagogic accompanist she assists the learner to see every milestone that he/she achieves as the basis for another. Her involvement brings about an acknowledgement of the human dignity of the milieu-deprived Coloured child. Many coloured learners have indicated that their female educators are their role models. Some female educators are compelled to teach the same grade for years. Their significant role merits experience of teaching the various grades at school. Women are very versatile and have potential which can be utilized adequately in all the facets of the school situation. They can make very important contributions towards the organisation and administration of the school as a whole, given the opportunity. Their focus on human nature and the importance of sound relationships as well as their high sense of duty are indicative of the ability female educators have to become excellent leaders in education. They are nevertheless under-represented in educational management positions. Although the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, is based on the principles of equality and human dignity, sexism is still a stumbling block in the path of female educators. Recommendations for an improvement m educational practice as well as further research were made. / Educational Studies / D. Ed. (Filosofie van die Opvoeding)