Thesis (M.S.)--Oregon State University, 2007. / Printout. Includes bibliographical references. Also available on the World Wide Web.

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This research project used many disciplines to examine the impacts of industrialisation on the wooded landscape of the South Pennines. The woodlands of this upland region are characterised by their small size and steep topography. Nevertheless, they exhibit a rich archaeology of management from the medieval period onwards. Field survey of case study sites was combined with charcoal analysis from excavated burning platforms, palynology of soil cores, tree ring analysis and ecological survey. This was set within a historical context, particularly focusing on the regional industries of iron, leather and textiles, in order to understand the economic motivations for changes in woodland management. The woodlands examined showed a diverse range of histories. Some had a strong correlation with models of changing woodland management culture of neighbouring regions, particularly the evolution of systematic oak-dominated coppice in response to industrial demands. Woodland management in the South Pennines was more sensitive to industries which created dispersed demand from many actors than to bulk demand from centralised industries and responded to the changing economics of the fossil fuel era. The dominance of freehold tenure also contributed to many woodlands being managed in an unsystematic manner and the survival of private wood pasture alongside timber harvesting. / Arts and Humanities Research Council through the Heritage Consortium

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Sexual selection can influence the mating system of an organism through multiple mechanisms. These mechanisms result in variation in reproductive success among individuals, and include scramble competition, endurance rivalries, contests, mate choice and cryptic choice, and sperm competition. Understanding the mating system of a species requires the identification of which processes are occurring, and to what degree. In this thesis, I explored the influence of mate choice mechanisms on the mating system of the terrestrial red-legged salamander, Plethodon shermani. I also documented the potential for post-copulatory processes (such as sperm competition and cryptic choice) to influence mating system dynamics. The evolution of mate choice requires (among other factors) variation in the reproductive value of potential mates. This variation is made apparent to choosy individuals through cues. Most animals use multiples cues incorporating many modalities to assess the reproductive quality of potential mates. In Chapter 2, I tested the contribution of two cues (chemical and visual) to mate choice by female P. shermani. I found that a male visual cue ("foot-dancing") increased courtship success. In contrast, delivery of non-volatile pheromones during courtship did not influence courtship success in the laboratory setting, but did affect the duration of one of the courtship stages. In Chapter 4, I identified a tactile cue that was significantly correlated with male reproductive success. Thus, P. shermani females could use at least three modalities to assess the reproductive quality of potential mates. Mate choice can also evolve in males. In Chapter 3, I tested this possibility in P. shermani. I found that males vary the reproductive effort they invest in a particular courtship based on the reproductive value of their partner, indicating male mate choice is occurring. A male invested most when paired with a female with large, well developed ova, and invested less with females that were non-gravid or had small ova. In addition to documenting male mate choice, I showed that the male visual display ("foot-dancing") that affected female mate choice was correlated with male condition, implying foot-dancing may be an honest indicator of male quality. Finally, in Chapter 5, I explored the potential for post-copulatory processes to influence the P. shermani mating system. The opportunity for sperm from multiple males to overlap in the female reproductive tract (i.e., the opportunity for females to mate multiply) is necessary for post-copulatory processes such as cryptic choice and sperm competition. The capacity for long-term sperm storage by females can increase the likelihood that this overlap in sperm from multiple males will occur. I found that females can store viable sperm for at least 9 months and in some cases beyond oviposition. In addition, I documented one female with sperm in her sperm storage organ from a mating that occurred 17 months earlier. Such lengthy sperm storage allows the possibility of sperm from one breeding season to interact with sperm from a subsequent season. Thus, the potential for post-copulatory sexual selection within this salamander system is high. / Graduation date: 2012

While the health benefits of physical activity are commonly recognised, increasing evidence indicates that significant percentages of children, particularly girls, are not sufficiently physically active. Children spend a large proportion of their waking day at school; however their opportunities to be physically active during the school day, beyond the traditional PE lesson and break times, are limited. Increasing children’s levels of physical activity during their time at school may be a key approach to increasing children’s overall levels of physical activity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the outdoor education programme ‘Forest School’ as a source of school based physical activity. A review of existing research showed that there had been no rigorous evaluation of physical activity during Forest School sessions. A two phase mixed method design was used. The first phase used a repeated measures controlled design to objectively measure the amount, intensity, duration and frequency of the participants’ (n26 age 9-10) physical activity during Forest School. The second phase used semi-structured paired interviews (n24 age 10-11) to understand the subjective experience of the Forest School physical activity. The study was conducted in the central belt of Scotland. The results showed that during Forest School sessions the participants engaged in a significantly greater total amount of physical activity, at a higher intensity, and with a greater frequency of longer bouts, in comparison to the typical school days. The children were also shown to reach the recommended hour of MVPA during the Forest School sessions. The children reported enjoying and appreciating the opportunity to be physically active in an environment they had little previous experience of using. Existing barriers to physical activity in other contexts, in particular bad weather and low motivation, did not appear to be relevant at Forest School. The inequality in levels of physical activity and motivation to be physically active, between males and females, was shown to typically be lower on the Forest School days. The findings suggest participation in Forest School resulted in greater quantities of inclusive and enjoyable physical activity at higher intensities than otherwise experienced at school.

Acidification of surface waters has been recognised as the major water quality problem in the UK uplands. The adverse effects of conifer afforestation on streamwater chemistry and ecology are well documented in acid-sensitive catchments and have mainly been attributed to the enhanced deposition of atmospheric pollutants onto conifer canopies (the “scavenging effect”). Currently, international and national policies promote the expansion of native broadleaf woodland in the UK. Pollutant deposition onto broadleaf canopies is considered less than onto the more aerodynamically rough conifers, but there is concern that largescale broadleaf planting could delay the recovery of acidified waters or lead to further acidification in most sensitive areas. However, there has been limited investigation of the influence of broadleaf woodland cover on streamwater chemistry in the UK. To investigate the effect of woodland cover 14 catchments with different (0-78%) percentages of broadleaf woodland cover were identified in representative acidsensitive areas in north-western and central Scotland (Glen Arnisdale and Loch Katrine area) and northern and south-western England (Ullswater area and Devon) using spatial datasets in a GIS. Streamwater was sampled at high flow from the catchment outlets in winter and spring 2005 and 2006 and was analysed for major cations, anions and trace metals using standard methods. The number of samples ranged from two in the Glen Arnisdale catchments to 10 in the Loch Katrine area catchments which were sampled more intensively. Significant positive correlations were found between percentage broadleaf woodland cover and streamwater NO3 (rs = 0.51) and soluble Al (rs = 0.64) concentrations. The greater NO3 leaching to streamwater in the three most forested catchments (> 50%) was probably due to enhanced N deposition onto woodland canopies and nitrification by alder in the Ullswater area forested catchments. Streamwater NO3 concentrations equalled or exceeded non-marine SO4 in the above catchments indicating that NO3 was the principal excess acidifying ion in catchments with greater woodland cover. The woodland effect on streamwater chemistry in the study catchments was masked to some extent by variability in acid deposition climate and soil type composition. Seasalt inputs were found to be a more important control than woodland cover for streamwater chemistry in the maritime Glen Arnisdale catchments. A risk assessment of acid-sensitivity in the study catchments was conducted by calculating streamwater critical load exceedances using the Steady-State Water Chemistry (SSWC) and First-order Acidity Balance (FAB) models and modelled pollutant deposition for 1995-97 and 2002. Critical loads were exceeded by 0.01 to 1.74 keq H ha-1 yr-1 in two catchments which had woodland covers > 50% and in the Devon control catchment. The remaining 11 study catchments were assessed to be not at risk of acidification, probably due to significantly reduced non-marine S deposition from 1986 to 2001, but seasalt inputs to the Glen Arnisdale catchments might cause acidic streamwater episodes. Acid-sensitivity was also assessed using macroinvertebrates sampled in 11 of the study catchments and the results generally agreed with the critical load assessments. More detailed estimates of the enhancement of dry S and N deposition onto birchwoods in the Loch Katrine area catchments using calculated roughness length within FRAME showed that it posed no risk for streamwater acidification in these catchments because of the high rainfall environment. However, in acid-sensitive areas of the UK with lower rainfall and closer to major pollution sources, enhanced pollutant scavenging by broadleaf woodland canopies could pose a greater risk of acidification to freshwaters. The finding that almost all study catchments with woodland covers less than 30% are well protected from acidification suggests that this is a sensible threshold value for use in risk assessments of the effects of broadleaf woodland planting conducted within the Forests and Water Guidelines. The results of a sensitivity analysis of the Guidelines’ methodology, conducted using parameters such as numbers and timing of streamwater sampling, different runoff estimates and critical acid neutralising capacity values, showed that the Guidelines should be able to protect sensitive freshwaters from acidification in areas where broadleaf woodland is expanding.

This thesis considers some of the main issues surrounding the quantitative models that have been developed to reconstruct vegetation from pollen assemblages. Conducted within a pine dominated woodland, a palynologically difficult landscape, to determine vegetation changes over the late Holocene the results highlight the complexities of undertaking such studies in these contexts. Pollen productivity estimates were calculated from moss samples over the woodland using complete sets and derived subsets to detect influences of sampling design on resultant model output. Differences in the PPE sets were compared using reconstructions from simulation models in comparison to observed vegetation patterns. The results indicate that both parameter calculation and model reconstructions were influenced by the landscape form and composition. Sensitivity of the models to such small variations in parameter values heightens the need for robust data generation and increased investigation to controlling factors on pollen productivity. Performance of the reconstruction models experienced variation with respect to deposition basin size and site specific characteristics. Overall, the regional reconstructions proved to generate more confident estimates of vegetation cover whilst local scale reconstructions were subject to greater variability. Comparison of the quantitative modelling to standard interpretation and the modern analogue approach shows contrasts between the results obtained with respect to limitations associated with each method and the time frames, recent (ca. 100 years) and longer (ca. 3000 years), over which they were applied. Consequently, no one quantitative approach could be identified as being superior as site specific variations were recognised in relation to the most suitable approach. In response, a hierarchical technique is proposed to utilise the benefits of each technique and to obtain detailed information to strengthen interpretations. However, it is stressed study specific constrains that determine the available resources will influence the ability to fully apply this composite approach.

Disturbance can provoke a chronic (long-term) stress response in wildlife, and can contribute to population declines. I examined the stress response of boreal woodland caribou, moose, and wolves to disturbance in eastern Manitoba by measuring cortisol concentrations in hair. Caribou cortisol concentrations were greatest for the three most southern populations, and increased with decreasing home range size. Intermediate logging (6-21 years) provided the best explanation for individual variation in caribou cortisol concentrations. Disturbance did not affect moose cortisol concentrations, but cortisol concentrations were higher in moose killed by wolves than moose collected by humans, suggesting that chronic stress in moose is linked to poor body condition and increased vulnerability to wolf predation. Wolf cortisol concentrations increased in 2012 and 2013 compared to 2011 following increased harvest pressure, and were higher in females. However, neither winter severity nor variation in wolf diet affected wolf cortisol concentrations. / October 2016