Μια πόλη συνίσταται από τρία επίπεδα οργάνωσης: το φυσικό, το τεχνητό και το κοινωνικό περιβάλλον, τα οποία βρίσκονται σε συνεχή αλληλεπίδραση μεταξύ τους και αποτελούν τη βάση για την ανάπτυξή της. Η ισορροπία των τριών αυτών επιπέδων οργάνωσης διαταράσσεται ως αποτέλεσμα της έντονης αστικοποίησης, η οποία χαρακτηρίζει τα αστικά οικοσυστήματα και συνδέεται παγκοσμίως με την αλλαγή της χρήσης και του τρόπου κάλυψης της γης. Τα αστικά περιβάλλοντα πρέπει να διαχειρίζονται βάσει σχεδιασμού, ο οποίος θα λαμβάνει υπ‟ όψιν τα οικολογικά στοιχεία μιας περιοχής, όπως είναι για παράδειγμα η ξυλώδης χλωρίδα της. Η παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή, η πρώτη στο είδος της για τον ελληνικό χώρο, στηρίζεται στη γνώση και στις αρχές της οικολογίας πόλεων και του αστικού σχεδιασμού. Έχει ως σκοπό να ερευνήσει την καλλιεργούμενη ξυλώδη χλωρίδα (δέντρα, θάμνους και ξυλώδη αναρριχώμενα) και την αυτοφυή εξάπλωσή της στην πόλη της Πάτρας και να εξετάσει εάν και με ποιο τρόπο οι τύποι αστικών βιοτόπων, δηλαδή φυσιογνωμικά ομοιόμορφες αστικές περιοχές με χαρακτηριστική δόμηση και ελεύθερους χώρους, μπορούν να χαρακτηρισθούν από τις καλλιεργούμενες ξυλώδεις συστάδες τους, καθώς και να διατυπώσει προτάσεις διαχείρισης για την ποιοτική αναβάθμισή τους. Για το σκοπό αυτό έγινε προσδιορισμός της ξυλώδους χλωρίδας της πόλης, χλωριδική, βιολογική και χωρολογική ανάλυση των taxa, καταγραφή της φαινολογίας τους και εκτίμηση της συχνότητας και σταθερότητάς τους, λαμβάνοντας υπ‟ όψιν τη σχέση μεταξύ της οικολογίας φυτών, του τύπου δόμησης και της χρήσης γης. Ως περιοχή έρευνας επιλέχθηκε η πόλη της Πάτρας, γιατί αφενός η καλλιεργούμενη χλωρίδα της δεν έχει μελετηθεί και αφετέρου παρουσιάζει τα χαρακτηριστικά μιας τυπικής ελληνικής μεγαλόπολης, κυρίως όσον αφορά στη δόμηση και στους ελεύθερους χώρους. Διακρίθηκαν 8 διαφορετικοί τύποι αστικών βιοτόπων, όπως Ολιγώροφες κατοικίες συνεχούς και ασυνεχούς δόμησης, Πολυώροφες κατοικίες συνεχούς και ασυνεχούς δόμησης, Ολιγώροφες και πολυώροφες κατοικίες πανταχόθεν ελεύθερης δόμησης, Βίλες, Εργατικές κατοικίες και Πάρκα. Στη συνέχεια επιλέχθηκαν 54 περιοχές μελέτης κατανεμημένες σε όλη την περιοχή έρευνας, συνολικής έκτασης 2.374,4 στρεμμάτων, έτσι ώστε να αντιπροσωπεύουν τα χαρακτηριστικά του εκάστοτε τύπου αστικού βιοτόπου και καταγράφηκαν σε αυτήν 218 taxa. Ο αριθμός αυτός των ξυλωδών taxa που εμφανίζεται στην περιοχή έρευνας, θεωρείται χαμηλός σε σύγκριση με άλλες πόλεις της κεντρικής Ευρώπης, όπου έχουν εκπονηθεί αντίστοιχες μελέτες. Αυτό αποδίδεται στην πυκνή δόμηση που χαρακτηρίζει τον πυρήνα της πόλης της Πάτρας, αλλά και γενικά στις λιγοστές επιφάνειες πρασίνου. Όσον αφορά στην καταγωγή των ξυλωδών taxa το ποσοστό των ξενικών και υβριδίων στην Πάτρα ανέρχεται σε 61,5% (125 taxa και 9 taxa αντίστοιχα) με τα ασιατικά και αμερικάνικα taxa να εμφανίζουν υψηλά ποσοστά (26,9% και 17,2% αντίστοιχα), ενώ των ιθαγενών σε 38,5% (84 taxa). Η κατανομή των βλαστητικών μορφών εντός της περιοχής έρευνας διαφέρει από εκείνη άλλων ευρωπαϊκών πόλεων. Έτσι, στην Πάτρα κυριαρχούν οι δενδρώδεις μορφές με ποσοστό 55,5% έναντι των θαμνωδών, ενώ σε πόλεις της κεντρικής Ευρώπης υπερτερούν οι θαμνώδεις μορφές. Όσον αφορά στην άνθηση, παρατηρείται μια παράταση στην περίοδο ανθοφορίας στο σύνολο των ξυλωδών ειδών. Το γεγονός αυτό αντανακλά την ανθρώπινη παρέμβαση στο φυσικό τοπίο και την προσπάθεια του ανθρώπου να εξασφαλίσει ανθοφορία όλο το χρόνο, αποτρέποντας παράλληλα τη δημιουργία μονότονων περιοχών. Τα φυλλοβόλα υπερτερούν με μικρό ποσοστό έναντι των αειθαλών. Αυτό οφείλεται στην παρουσία ενός σημαντικού ποσοστού φυλλοβόλων taxa, που ανήκουν στις δύο πλουσιότερες σε taxa οικογένειες, δηλαδή σε αυτές των Rosaceae και Leguminoseae. Όλα σχεδόν τα ξυλώδη taxa σχηματίζουν καρπούς, εκτός από ένα μικρό ποσοστό (5,2%). Το 40,8% των taxa στο σύνολο της ξυλώδους χλωρίδας φέρει σαρκώδεις καρπούς, οι οποίοι αποτελούν σημαντική πηγή τροφής για την ορνιθοπανίδα της περιοχής, αλλά και τρόπο εξάπλωσης των taxa μέσω των σπερμάτων τους. Το ποσοστό των καλλωπιστικών taxa στο σύνολο της χλωρίδας είναι σαφώς μεγαλύτερο από αυτό των ξυλωδών taxa με εδώδιμους καρπούς (76,8% και 22,6% αντίστοιχα), γεγονός που αντανακλά μια τάση προτίμησης των κατοίκων για καλλωπιστικά taxa και μάλιστα ξενικής καταγωγής, προβάλλοντας με αυτόν τον τρόπο την παρούσα οικονομική και κοινωνική τους κατάσταση. Όσον αφορά στη σχέση μεταξύ αριθμού ξυλωδών taxa και μεγέθους επιφάνειας δεν προκύπτει θετική συσχέτιση μεταξύ τους, σε αντίθεση με πόλεις της Κ. Ευρώπης, επειδή, σύμφωνα με τη θεωρία «small island effect», στις μικρές περιοχές μελέτης η επιφάνεια παύει να είναι ο καθοριστικός παράγοντας. Τaxa που να εμφανίζονται και στις 54 περιοχές μελέτης, δηλαδή με σταθερότητα 100%, δεν απαντούν. Όσα taxa εμφανίζονται με μεγάλη σταθερότητα, όπως τα Morus alba, Nerium oleander και Ailanthus altissima, είναι συγχρόνως και εκείνα με το μεγαλύτερο αριθμό ατόμων, γεγονός που υποδηλώνει ότι τα taxa αυτά ευνοήθηκαν από τη φύτευσή τους. Όσον αφορά στη σύνθεση των ειδών των τύπων αστικών βιοτόπων της Πάτρας υπάρχει μεγάλη ετερογένεια. Χαρακτηριστικό είναι ότι μερικά είδη εμφανίζουν πολύ μεγάλη σταθερότητα σε ορισμένους τύπους βιοτόπων, ενώ σε άλλους πολύ μικρή ή καθόλου. Το Acer pseudoplatanus αποδείχθηκε το χαρακτηριστικό είδος μόνο για τις πολυώροφες κατοικίες ασυνεχούς τύπου δόμησης. Από τα παραπάνω συμπεραίνεται ότι οι τύποι των αστικών βιοτόπων της Πάτρας μπορούν να διαφοροποιηθούν με βάση τον αριθμό, όχι όμως και με βάση τη σύνθεση των ξυλωδών ειδών που εμφανίζονται σ‟ αυτούς. Η αυτοφυόμενη ξυλώδης χλωρίδα της Πάτρας εμφανίζεται με ένα ποσοστό 17,9% επί της συνολικής ξυλώδους χλωρίδας και είναι συγκρίσιμη με αυτή που απαντά σε πόλεις της Κ. Ευρώπης, όπου έχουν γίνει αντίστοιχες μελέτες. Και εδώ παρατηρείται σαφής υπεροχή των ξενικών (53,8%) έναντι των ιθαγενών, αλλά και των δενδρωδών μορφών έναντι των θαμνωδών, όπως παρατηρήθηκε και στη συνολική χλωρίδα. Τα πιο σταθερά και συγχρόνως τα πιο πλούσια σε αριθμό ξενικά αυτοφυόμενα ξυλώδη taxa είναι τα Morus alba, Ailanthus altissima, Vitis vinifera ssp. vinifera και Hibiscus syriacus και από τα ιθαγενή το Ligustrum vulgare. Οι μελετηθέντες τύποι αστικών βιοτόπων παρουσιάζουν σχετική ομοιογένεια ως προς τον αριθμό των αυτοφυόμενων ξυλωδών taxa, γεγονός που παρατηρείται και σε πόλεις της Κ. Ευρώπης. Όσον αφορά στη σχέση μεταξύ αριθμού αυτοφυόμενων ξυλωδών taxa και μεγέθους επιφάνειας, δεν προκύπτει θετική συσχέτιση μεταξύ τους. Για να αξιολογηθεί η κατάσταση των τύπων αστικών βιοτόπων της Πάτρας, εκτιμήθηκε η αξία των παραγόντων εκείνων που ενισχύουν ή αποδυναμώνουν το χαρακτήρα τους. Τέτοιοι παράγοντες είναι κυρίως το μικροκλίμα/αέρας (θερμοκρασία, αερισμός, εκπομπές καυσαερίων) το έδαφος, το νερό, το φυσικό περιβάλλον (χώροι πρασίνου), η κυκλοφορία (πολύ αυξημένη – μικρή), ο θόρυβος (ηχορύπανση), οι κίνδυνοι για τη δημόσια υγεία (μικροκλίμα, εκπομπές καυσαερίων, κυκλοφορία, θόρυβος), οι χώροι αναψυχής, ο βαθμός εκμετάλλευσης (ενέργειας, επιφάνειας, κτισμάτων) καθώς και κοινωνικο-οικονομικοί παράγοντες (μείξη χρήσεων γης, π.χ. εργασία, κατοικία). Για τον καθένα από αυτούς τους παράγοντες καθορίστηκε μια 5-βάθμια κλίμακα αξιών. Μέσα από την εκτίμηση των αξιών των τύπων αστικών βιοτόπων προσδιορίσθηκαν τα πλεονεκτήματα, αλλά και τα προβλήματά τους. Την υψηλότερη οικολογική αξία την έχουν οι τύποι αστικών βιοτόπων που χαρακτηρίζονται από τον πανταχόθεν ελεύθερο τύπο δόμησης (Ολιγώροφες και πολυώροφες κατοικίες πανταχόθεν ελεύθερου τύπο δόμησης, Βίλες, Εργατικές Κατοικίες) και τα Πάρκα. Οι τύποι αστικών βιοτόπων που χαρακτηρίζονται από το συνεχή και τον ασυνεχή τύπο δόμησης εμφανίζονται μεν οικολογικά υποβαθμισμένοι, αλλά είναι κοινωνικοοικονομικά αναβαθμισμένοι. Γενικά όμως, όπου υπάρχει έντονη εκμετάλλευση του εδάφους υπάρχει και αυξημένη οικονομική δραστηριότητα, ενώ ταυτόχρονα υποβαθμίζεται η ποιότητα του φυσικού περιβάλλοντος. Οι τύποι αστικών βιοτόπων που χαρακτηρίζονται από έντονη εκμετάλλευση πρέπει να βελτιώσουν για παράδειγμα το μικροκλίμα, την ποιότητα του αέρα και του εδάφους τους. Η ξυλώδης χλωρίδα των πόλεων δεν είναι ο μοναδικός τρόπος βελτίωσης της ποιότητας των τύπων αστικών βιοτόπων, αλλά σίγουρα είναι ένας τρόπος θετικής παρέμβασης για την αναβάθμισή τους. Τα διαχειριστικά μέτρα που προτείνονται αφορούν στη βελτίωση του φυσικού, του τεχνητού και του κοινωνικού περιβάλλοντος. Περιλαμβάνουν προτάσεις διαχείρισης που στοχεύουν στην αποκατάσταση, βελτίωση και διατήρηση των παραγόντων εκείνων που επηρεάζουν την ποιότητα των τύπων αστικών βιοτόπων, με απώτερο σκοπό την υγιή και άνετη διαβίωση των κατοίκων της πόλης. / A city is formed by the interaction between natural, built and social environment. These three areas are fundamental for environmental development. Urbanization phenomenon around the world has been an important component of land use and land cover change and influences negatively the balance of those three areas. Management of urban environments must be based on urban planning, which takes into consideration the significant ecological components of an area, such as the woody plants. The present doctorate thesis, the first of its kind in Greece, is based on the knowledge and principles of the science of urban ecology and urban planning. The aim of the present study was to survey the woody species (trees, shrubs and woody climbers) of the city of Patras and to examine whether and in which way the urban structural units (defined as “areas with physiognomically homogenous character, which are marked in the built-up area by a characteristic formation of buildings and open spaces”) can be characterized by their planted woody stands. For that reason the spectra, combination, frequency and consistency of species were assessed, considering the relationships between plant ecology, biotope structure and land-use. The wider area of Patras‟ city was chosen as a study area, because there is a lack of knowledge on its cultivated flora and because it has the features of a typical Greek city concerning the formation of buildings and the open spaces. Eight urban structural units were identified within the city of Patras. These are Multi-storeyed attached housing, Multi–storeyed semi–detached housing, Low–rise attached housing (bungalows–two floors), Low–rise semi-detached housing (bungalows–two floors), Multi–storeyed and low–rise detached housing, Villas, Workers‟ housing, Parks (incl. squares and bocages). In total, 237,44 ha of urban land were studied thoroughly in the fifty-four study areas designated throughout the wider area of Patras city. 218 woody plants were recorded in the eight urban structural units studied. The number of woody species recorded in the study area of 237,44 ha is considered to be low when compared with that of central Europe, where similar studies have been undertaken. This low number is due to the very high building density found in the city centre and also to the limited number of green areas (e.g. parks). Concerning the origin of the woody species in the city of Patras non-native and hybrids dominate. The proportion accounts for 61,5% (125 taxa non-native and 9 taxa hybrids), of which the Asiatic (26,9%) and the American (17,2%) species are represented by high percentages in the woody flora of Patras. The native species represent the 38,5% (84 taxa) of the total woody flora. The life-form spectrum of the woody flora in the city of Patras differs from that recorded in other European cities. The proportion of trees (55,5%) is higher than that of shrubs in the city of Patras, whereas in central European cities shrubs dominate. The prolongation of the flowering period recorded in the study area reflects human attempt to assure blooming all year, so that monotony of the urban landscape can be avoided. The proportion of deciduous species is slightly higher than that of evergreen species. This is due to the presence of high proportions of deciduous species, which belong to the two richest in species families, to these of Rosaceae and Leguminoseae. Almost all woody species fruit, except from a small percentage (5,2%). A significant proportion (40,8%) of the total woody species form fleshy fruits, which are an important food source for the fauna of the study area, especially for birds. At the same time, the distribution of the woody species is assured. The proportion of cultivated woody plants (76,8%) is higher than that of woody plants forming edible fruits (22,6%). This fact reflects inhabitants‟ preference for ornamental plants non-native in origin, denoting social and financial standing. Statistical analysis proves the absence of a positive correlation between the species number and the size of the area. On the contrary, in central European cities the correlation is positive. This is explained by the „small island effect‟ theory, according to which, in small study areas the size of the area does not play the most important role, when species – area relationship is surveyed. Species appearing in all study areas, i.e. with 100% consistency, were not observed. Those species with high consistency, such as Morus alba, Nerium oleander and Ailanthus altissima, are also those with the highest frequency. This shows that these species benefited from them being planted. Floristic composition in the various urban structural units shows great heterogeneity as several species present high consistency in some structural units but low or zero consistency in others. Acer pseudoplatanus proved to be a characteristic species only within the urban structure of multi-storeyed semi-detached housing. Taking these findings into account, we conclude that the urban structural units of Patras can be differentiated based on the number of woody species recorded in each, but not on their floristic composition. Spontaneous diffusion could only be identified for 17,9% of the cultivated species. This proportion is comparable to that recorded in other central European cities, where similar studies have been undertaken. The proportion of non-native species (53,8%) is higher than that of native, and so is the proportion of trees in comparison to that of shrubs. Similar proportions have been also recorded for the total woody flora of the city of Patras. The most frequent non-native spontaneous woody species observed in Patras are Morus alba, Ailanthus altissima and Hibiscus syriacus. The commonest native spontaneous species in the city is Ligustrum vulgare. The urban structural units studied in Patras show relative homogeneity concerning the number of spontaneous woody species. This homogeneity is also observed in cities of central Europe. The correlation between the species number and the size of the area is negative. For the evaluation of the urban structural units in the city of Patras, the value of criteria that strengthen or weaken the character of the urban structural units was taken into consideration. Those criteria are mainly microclimate / wind (temperature, emissions), soil, water, natural environment (green spaces), traffic (heavy or not), noise (noise pollution), dangers for public health (quality of microclimate, emissions, traffic, noise pollution), degree of resources‟ exploitation (of energy, surface, buildings) as well as socio-economic criteria (land-use). For each of these criteria a 5 – degree scale of values was designated. This consideration of the values which affect the urban structural units enabled the definition of the advantages and the drawbacks of each urban structural unit. The urban structural units characterized by detached free building style (multi-storeyed and low-rise detached housing, villas, workers‟ housing) and parks are highly attractive and have high ecological properties. The urban structural units characterized by attached or semi-detached housing have low ecological properties but are socioeconomically benefited. Generally, high exploitation degree (of energy or soil) is related to social and economic integration. At the same time the quality of the natural environment is degraded. Urban structural units characterized by high exploitation in terms of soil, water and energy must upgrade not only their microclimatic conditions, but also the quality of air and soil. The contribution of the woody flora to the environmental development is significant. The management measures proposed, aim to upgrade the natural, built and social environment. They include management proposals that aim to the upgrade and conservation of specific parameters which affect the quality of the urban structural units. Such proposals could make a valuable contribution to the upgrade of the quality of city life.

A região dos morros graníticos de Porto Alegre (Estado do Rio Grande do Sul), inserida no sul do Brasil, apresenta uma cobertura vegetal em forma de mosaico natural de florestas e áreas abertas (savanas ou campos). Neste locais, segundo o clima atual, as formações florestais tendem a avançar sobre a matriz herbácea, principalmente de forma agrupada, formando ilhas de nucleação florestal. Este padrão é mantido por forças seletivas como a precipitação, o fogo e a herbivoria (vertebrados e invertebrados), que incidem de maneira mais intensa sobre as fases iniciais das populações de plantas pioneiras da floresta. As forças atuam de maneira distinta nos diversos hábitats disponíveis para o estabelecimento de plântulas, criando um arranjo espacial em forma de ilhas. Esta tese aborda, no primeiro capítulo, os padrões florísticos e espaciais de ilhas de nucleação florestal em ecótono natural de floresta-savana, segundo as diferentes exposições solares (norte, topo e sul) dominantes do morro Santana, comparando-as, floristicamente, com as bordas de mata. No segundo capítulo, é avaliada, experimentalmente, a sobrevivência de plântulas de guamirim (Myrcia palustris DC.; Myrtaceae) sob a influência de uma seca severa em diferentes hábitats (borda de mata, ilhas de nucleação florestal e matriz herbácea) presentes em três exposições solares (norte, topo e sul). Em ambos os casos, os estudos foram conduzidos no morro Santana (30°03’ S, 51°07’ W), cuja altitude máxima é de 311m acima do nível do mar. Para avaliar os padrões florísticos e espaciais, foram selecionadas vinte oito ilhas de nucleação florestal das várias área de cobertura (entre 5,5 a 904m2) em um mosaico natural de floresta-campo e quatro parcelas na borda da mata de dois tamanhos distintos (121,5 e 243m2). As espécies vegetais foram identificadas, classificadas em síndromes de dispersão e a abundância de indivíduos foi registrada. Os padrões florísticos foram observados através de análise multivariada. As relações entre a área de cobertura e diversidade/riqueza e entre o número de indivíduos e a riqueza foram analisadas por regressão linear. Para avaliar a sobrevivência de M. palustris, foram analisadas as taxas de sobrevivência e de mortalidade, bem como as causas desta mortalidade para esta espécie arbórea florestal generalista. As sobrevivências e causas de morte foram avaliadas mensalmente, durante os primeiros meses de vida desta espécie, em um período de seca severa em três hábitats e dois controles: borda de mata (B), ilhas de nucleação florestal (I) e matriz herbácea (H), além dos controle-interno (CI) e controleexterno (CE) repetidas em três ambientes geomorfológicos (norte, topo e sul). Em cada hábitat foram transplantadas plântulas isoladas e agrupadas (2-4), com o objetivo de avaliar a mortalidade densidade-dependente. Foram registrados 4214 indivíduos (2828 nas ilhas de nucleação e 1386 nas bordas de mata) distribuídos em 38 famílias e 111 espécies. A análise de agrupamento formou três grupos: g1, com ilhas de nucleação florestal mais iniciais dos três ambientes geomorfológicos (predomínio das ilhas do topo); g2, também por ilhas dos três ambientes geomorfológicos (predomínio das ilhas do norte); e g3, com as ilhas mais desenvolvidas dos três ambientes geomorfológicos (predomínio das ilhas do sul) unidas às bordas de mata. A dispersão zoocórica é dominante nas ilhas dos três grupos, ao passo que a dispersão autocórica apresentou um tendência de aumento de g1 para g3 e a dispersão anemocórica, o inverso. Nas mais desenvolvidas, houve maior riqueza e abundância de espécies lenhosas florestais tardias do que em ilhas mais iniciais. Os testes de aleatorização entre os três grupos revelaram que as áreas de cobertura de g3 (344,5m2) e g2 (156m2) são significativamente maiores que g1 (40,9m2) (p = 0,001), o que não ocorreu entre g3 e g2 (p = 0,063). Os valores de diversidade foram diferentes (p = 0,001) entre g1 (1,56) e g2 (2,16) ou g3 (2,97) e, levemente diferentes (p = 0,04) entre g2 e g3. Retirando as bordas de mata, as ilhas das três diferentes exposições solares diferiram (p = 0,02) em relação à riqueza e a abundância do norte e do topo, do norte e do sul, mas não entre o sul e o topo (p = 0,06). A análise de congruência obteve valor máximo (0,72) unindo riqueza e abundância; se acrescidos a eles a área de cobertura, a diversidade e a densidade das ilhas, este valor ainda permanece alto (0,7). A área de cobertura foi o único parâmetro especial que se mostrou correlacionado com riqueza (R2 = 0,676; p < 0,001) e com a diversidade (R2 = 0,49; p < 0,001). Quanto maior o número de indivíduos, maior a riqueza em g1 (R2 g1 = 0,63; p = 0,002), em g2 (R2 g2 = 0,66; p = 0,004), mas não em e g3 (R2 g3 = 0,6; p = 0,07). A falta de significância na correlação em g3 é resultado do baixo número de unidades amostrais neste grupo (6). com a Os resultados com M. palustris revelam que as taxas de sobrevivências médias mensais aumentaram inversamente com a quantidade de precipitação mensal para todos os ambientes (R2 = 0,46; p = 0,006). A curva de sobrevivência decaiu mais abruptamente no topo do que nos demais ambientes geomorfológicos (p < 0,01), sem diferenças entre norte e sul (p = 0,263). Esta mesma curva foi diferente entre todos os hábitats (p < 0,01), resultando numa maior chance de sobrevivência em B, seguida por I e nula em H. As forças seletivas que causam a morte das plântulas são distintas entre os hábitats (p < 0,01): a herbivoria por invertebrado é maior em H; por vertebrado, é maior em I e H; a seca/doença é maior em B; e o fogo, maior em I. A partir destes resultados, são apresentadas as seguintes conclusões: Os padrões florísticos e espaciais do avanço florestal em ilhas de nucleação refletem os processos de sucessão de um estádio mais inicial e simples para um estádio mais “tardio” e complexo, similar a uma borda de mata. Este processo é limitado pela distribuição de micro-hábitats adequados ao estabelecimento das espécies lenhosas florestais de dispersão zoocórica. A sucessão nas ilhas é retroalimentada positivamente, sendo que a chegada e o estabelecimento de novos indivíduos de espécies florestais atrai mais dispersores de sementes, acelerando a sucessão. A composição florística é dependente, também, da localização da ilha em relação às diferentes exposições solares. Para a sobrevivência de plântulas de M. palutris, a precipitação mensal é o parâmetro determinante primário. A distribuição dos hábitats afeta a dinâmica do avanço florestal na medida em que varia, entre eles, a taxa de sobrevivência de plântulas. Mesmo em anos de seca severa, ocorre o avanço da floresta em hábitats mais sombreados presentes no mosaico. Por fim, pode-se concluir que o avanço da floresta sobre a matriz herbácea é um fenômeno vinculado à natureza florística das matas adjacentes. Na matriz da paisagem, há diversos hábitats potencialmente disponíveis que modificam as chances de sobrevivência de plântulas e, portanto, contribuem, de formas diferentes, para a dinâmica da vegetação de comunidades de populações de espécies lenhosas. Entre os hábitats, a matriz herbácea é o hábitat mais inóspito para plântulas destas espécies e a borda da mata, o mais adequado. As ilhas apresentam uma condição intermediária entre os dois primeiros hábitats, sendo as mais desenvolvidas bastante semelhantes às bordas. Os mecanismos que retardam esta dinâmica são, em ordem de importância, a disponibilidade de água (em todos os hábitats), o herbivoria por vertebrado (nas ilhas e matriz herbácea), o fogo (na matriz herbácea) e, por último, a herbivoria por invertebrado (na matriz herbácea). / The region of granitic hills of Porto Alegre (State of Rio Grande do Sul) in southern brazilian’s region is contituted by a mosiac of forest and open areas (savannas or grassland). In these sites, according to the actual climate, the conditions are suitable for forest, which should mean that this vegetation type is in expansion, invading the surrounding herbaceous matrix. This expansion shows, mainly, an aggregation pattern by woody thickets of forest nucleation. The maintenance of the pattern is made by selective forces like precipitation, fire and herbivory (vertebrade and invertebrade) which are stronger in a juvenil phases of tree popualations. The selective forces act differently within all habitats available for seedling stablishment, creating a spatial arrangment of woody island. On the first chapter of this study, we analysed the floristic and spatial patterns of thickets island of forest expansion in a natural ecotone of forest-savanna, according to the slope (north, top and south) on Santan hill. It compares the floristic ans spatial patterns of thickets and forest edges in this three slopes. On the second chapter, we evaluated monthly, the seedling suvivorship of guamirim (Myrcia palustris DC.; Myrtaceae) under the influence of a severious drought (2004/2005) within differents habitats (forest edge, thickets and herbaceous matrix) of three slopes (north, top and south), during 15 months, by an experimental approach. In both cases, the study was carried out in Santana hill (30°03’ S, 51°07’ W), with maximum altitude 311m above sea level. In order to evaluate the floristic and spatial patterns, we selected 28 thickets of many cover areas (between 5,5 to 904m2) and four forest edges of two sizes (121,5 e 243m2). All woody individuals (h ³ 1m) were registered. The species, their abundance and dispersal modes were registered too. The floristic patterns were analysed by multivariate analyses. The relationship between cover area and diversity/richness or abundance and richness were analysed by linear regression. For survivorship of M. palutris seedlings, we analysed the survival/mortality rates and the mortality causes for this generalist tree. The survival and mortality causes were tested within three habitats and two controls: forest edge (B), thickets (I), herbaceous matrix (H), innercontrol (CI) and external-control (CE). The habitats were placed in three differents slopes (north, top and south). In all traits, we tranplanted isolated and group seedlings (1-4), to investigate the density-dependent mortality. We registered 4214 individuals (2828 in the thickets and 1386 in edge) amongst 38 botanical families and 111 species. The cluster analyses showed three groups: g1 with initial thickets of three slopes (predominance of top thickets), g2 also with thickets of three slopes (predominance of north thickets) and g3 with more development thickets of three slopes (predominance of south thickets) together with four forest edges. The dispersal by animals was dominant in all three groups. The autochorie dispersal showed an increase trend from g1 to g3, while anemochorie dispersal was in opposite way. The randomization tests indicates that g3 cover area (344,4m2) and g2 (156m2) are bigger (p = 0,001) than g1 (40,9m2) and g3 and g2 are no different (p = 0,063). The diversity (H’) was almost the same, with g3 (2,97) or g2 (2,16) higher (p = 0,001) than g1 (1,56), but g3 and g2 are slightly differents (p = 0,04). Without the forest edges samples, the thickets had differents richness and abundance (p = 0,02) from the north to the top or to the south, but no differences (p = 0,06) form the south to the top. The congruence analyses had maximum value (0,72) joining richness and abundance, however with more area cover, diversity and densitiy together, the value keeps high (0,7). Just one single parameter, cover area, could explain the increase of richness (R2 = 0,676; p < 0,001) and diversity (R2 = 0,49; p < 0,001). With increase number of individuals, increase the richness in g1 (R2 g1 = 0,63; p = 0,002), in g2 (R2 g2 = 0,66; p = 0,004), but not in g3 (R2 g3 = 0,6; p = 0,07). The lack of significance in g3 is related to the few sample units of this group (6). The results with M. palustris seedlings showed a inverse relation (R2 = 0,46; p = 0,006) between the mean mensal mortality (mm) and the the mensal precipitation for all habitats in all slopes. The suvivorship curve decreased more abruptly in the top than north or south (p < 0,01), but not form the south to north (p = 0,263). This curve were also different (p < 0,01) amongst all habitats, which makes the chance of survival be higher in B than I and nule in H. The selective forces that cause seedlings death are distinct amongst the habitats (p < 0,01): by invertebrade herbivory higher in H, by vertebrade herbivory higher in I and, drought/disease higher in B and by fire higher in H. Based on this results, we found this conclusions: The floristic and spatial patterns of forest expansion by woody thickets reflect the successional process that ranges from an initial and simple stage (more pioneer) to an latter and complex stage (less pioneer) similar with the forest edge. This process is limited by micro-habitats distribution which are suitable for forest tree seedlings with dispersal by animals. The successional process within the thickets have a positive feedback, where the arrival and stablishment of new individuals from forest species atract more seed dispersors, accelerating the process. The floristic composition depends also from the thicket slope location. For the survivorship of M. palutris seedling, the mensal precipitation was main determinant parameter. The habitat distribution affects the forest expansion dynamics due the differents suvival rates amongst them. Even with a severious drought, there is forest expansion in the mosaic within more shade habitats. We concluded that the forest expansion over the herbaceous matriz is a phenomena dependent from the surrounding forest edges. Within the mosaic landscape, there are several potencial habitats available wich modified the chances of seedling survival and, therefore, had distinct contributions to communities and popualtion dynmics of woody species. Amongst habitats, the herbaceous matriz is the less suitable for seedlings of this specie, while the forest edge is the most one. The thickets has the intermediate conditions, where the most development are very similar to the edges. The mechanisms wich delay this dynamic, on the decreased importance order, is the water availability (all habitats), the vertebrate herbivore (thickets and herbaceous matrix), the fire (herbaceous matrix) and the invertebrade herbivory (herbaceous matrix).

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:32:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2007-05-21Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:43:33Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 valmorbida_j_dr_botfca.pdf: 653023 bytes, checksum: 354f212c2d30f294ce34c4e7b5512709 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Pertencente à família Meliaceae, a espécie Trichilia catigua A. Juss é conhecida popularmente como catigua, cataguá, argelim-rosa e mangalto-catingam. Sua casca apresenta propriedades adstringente, inseticida, purgativa, tônica, bactericida, antiinflamatória e antidepressiva. Com o objetivo de propagar a espécie T. catigua foram desenvolvidos experimentos testando o enraizamento de estacas e a micropropagação com explantes de matrizes e sementes. Os experimentos de enraizamento de estacas foram realizados na primavera 2004, verão 2004/2005, outono, inverno e primavera 2005 e primavera 2006. Em todos os experimentos, estacas com aproximadamente 15 cm de comprimento foram coletadas de árvores adultas e preparadas da parte apical e mediana dos ramos. A seguir, foram submetidas aos reguladores vegetais IBA (ácido indolbutírico), NAA (ácido naftalenoacético) e IAA (ácido 3-indolacético), variando as dosagens. Para a avaliação dos experimentos determinou-se a percentagem de estacas enraizadas, não enraizadas e mortas e quando enraizadas, seu comprimento e diâmetro. No experimento primavera de 2004 foram testadas as concentrações de 1000 e 2000 mg L-1 dos reguladores vegetais IBA, NAA e IAA. As avaliações aos 90 dias após sua instalação revelaram maiores percentagens de enraizamento e iguais a 33,33, 25,00, 22,91 e 23,43 % para estacas submetidas a IBA 1000, 2000 mg L-1 e NAA 1000 e 2000 mg L-1, respectivamente. No verão 2004/2005, outono, inverno e primavera 2005 os experimentos foram conduzidos com as concentrações dos reguladores IBA, NAA e IAA iguais a 1000, 2000 e 3000 mg L-1 e as avaliações foram realizadas após 120 dias. Não houve enraizamento no outono e inverno. A análise conjunta dos resultados obtidos na primavera e no verão mostrou percentagem de enraizamento superior na primavera. A maior percentagem de enraizamento, igual a 19,17%... / The Trichilia catigua A. Juss from the Meliaceae family is popularly known as catigua, cataguá, argelim-rose and mangalto-catingam. Its bark has astringent, insecticide, purgativa, tonic, bactericide, anti-inflammatory and antidepressant properties. With the aim of propagate T. catigua, experiments of rooting with stem cuttings and of micropropagation with explants of trees and seeds were carried out. In all the rooting experiments the stem cuttings with approximately 15 cm of length were collected from adult trees and prepared from the apical and intermediate parts. The cuttings were immersed in the vegetable regulators IBA (Indole-3- butyric acid), ANA (Naphthalene acetic acid) and IAA (Indole-3 acetic acid). The rooted stem cutting and not rooted stem cutting percentage and, when rooted, the length and diameter of roots, were evaluated. In the experiment spring 2004 the concentrations of 1000 and 2000 mg L-1 of IBA, ANA and IAA were tested, with evaluations 90 days after installation. The highest rooting percentage were 33,33, 25,00, 22,91 and 23,43% for IBA 1000, 2000 mg L-1 and ANA 1000 and 2000 mg L-1, respectively. In the summer of 2004/2005, autumn, winter and spring of 2005 IBA, ANA and AIA, with concentration of 1000, 2000 and 3000 mg L-1, were tested. The evaluation was carried out at 120 days. No rooting was observed in autumn and winter. The analysis of data from summer and spring showed higher rooting percentage in spring. The highest rooting percentage was obtained with IBA 3000 mg L-1 (19,17%). In the spring 2006 IBA (1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 and 5000 mg L-1) and ANA (1000, 2000, 3000 mg L-1) were tested. The highest rooting percentage (41,67%) was obtained with IBA 5000 mg L-1. In the in vitro cultivation, explantes obtained from trees were submitted to asepsis treatments with HgCl2, CaOCl2 and NaOCl and inoculated in Murashige & Skoog culture medium (MS) with 25%... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Urbanization has increased rapidly throughout the world. The densification of urban areas has greatly reduced the number of natural areas occurring within the urban environment as well as impacting the ecosystem services that these areas provide. Urban greening and sustainable practices have been advocated as a means to once again provide the urban population with ecosystem services. Sacred natural areas that occur in surrounding forest, temple and cemetery sites have been known harbour a variety of biological diversity, as well as provide people with a number of cultural and spiritual benefits. Much of the literature on sacred natural sites comes from rural or eastern countries, leaving a large gap in the knowledge pertaining to information on these sites in both developed nations as well as urban areas. The aim of this study was to determine the abundance and composition of woody species, as well as the spiritual and cultural significance of sacred natural sites in Grahamstown. This study defined a sacred urban area as any form of garden surrounding a church, temple or mosque, as well as cemeteries. It looked at a total of 28 church gardens, one Hindu garden, one Mosque garden and five cemeteries in Grahamstown, South Africa. For each site the area was calculated and a tree and shrub inventory was done for all individuals above 1.5 m tall. Church/cemetery age, denomination and appearance were recorded as well as soil samples collected. An ordination of the data was done to summarize the community data, relating the community variation to environmental gradients. Questionnaires were completed by congregants who attended a religious building with a garden, as well as those that were not surrounded by a garden. These questionnaires were used to determine the cultural, spiritual and aesthetic value of trees and the sacred area, as well as the perceived and felt benefits that these areas provide. Those that were completed by congregants without gardens looked to find out whether or not it was believed that these areas would improve their experiences. There was an average plant density of 106.1 woody plants per hectare, with a total of 139 different species encountered. Of these, 56 percent were exotic species. This is slightly lower than that of studies done elsewhere in the world, but may be due to the omission of non-woody ornamentals and lawn species in this study. Of the top 11 most frequently occurring species, only two were indigenous. There was generally low similarity between plant assemblages found at the different sites. A significantly positive relationship was found between site size and woody plant basal area as well as the total number of woody plants. Site age and religious denomination had little influence on woody plant density, basal area, species richness or woody plant abundance. Congregants stated that a garden surrounding a religious building improved both their spiritual and aesthetic experiences. Stated spiritual and aesthetic experience was significantly influenced by basal area, while abundance significantly influenced stated aesthetic experience. Greenery was therefore important to many of the congregants, however, the species that were present were less influential. A greater sample size from a variety of religions and sacred areas within urban environments throughout the world would prove to be an interesting comparison for future research.

A região dos morros graníticos de Porto Alegre (Estado do Rio Grande do Sul), inserida no sul do Brasil, apresenta uma cobertura vegetal em forma de mosaico natural de florestas e áreas abertas (savanas ou campos). Neste locais, segundo o clima atual, as formações florestais tendem a avançar sobre a matriz herbácea, principalmente de forma agrupada, formando ilhas de nucleação florestal. Este padrão é mantido por forças seletivas como a precipitação, o fogo e a herbivoria (vertebrados e invertebrados), que incidem de maneira mais intensa sobre as fases iniciais das populações de plantas pioneiras da floresta. As forças atuam de maneira distinta nos diversos hábitats disponíveis para o estabelecimento de plântulas, criando um arranjo espacial em forma de ilhas. Esta tese aborda, no primeiro capítulo, os padrões florísticos e espaciais de ilhas de nucleação florestal em ecótono natural de floresta-savana, segundo as diferentes exposições solares (norte, topo e sul) dominantes do morro Santana, comparando-as, floristicamente, com as bordas de mata. No segundo capítulo, é avaliada, experimentalmente, a sobrevivência de plântulas de guamirim (Myrcia palustris DC.; Myrtaceae) sob a influência de uma seca severa em diferentes hábitats (borda de mata, ilhas de nucleação florestal e matriz herbácea) presentes em três exposições solares (norte, topo e sul). Em ambos os casos, os estudos foram conduzidos no morro Santana (30°03’ S, 51°07’ W), cuja altitude máxima é de 311m acima do nível do mar. Para avaliar os padrões florísticos e espaciais, foram selecionadas vinte oito ilhas de nucleação florestal das várias área de cobertura (entre 5,5 a 904m2) em um mosaico natural de floresta-campo e quatro parcelas na borda da mata de dois tamanhos distintos (121,5 e 243m2). As espécies vegetais foram identificadas, classificadas em síndromes de dispersão e a abundância de indivíduos foi registrada. Os padrões florísticos foram observados através de análise multivariada. As relações entre a área de cobertura e diversidade/riqueza e entre o número de indivíduos e a riqueza foram analisadas por regressão linear. Para avaliar a sobrevivência de M. palustris, foram analisadas as taxas de sobrevivência e de mortalidade, bem como as causas desta mortalidade para esta espécie arbórea florestal generalista. As sobrevivências e causas de morte foram avaliadas mensalmente, durante os primeiros meses de vida desta espécie, em um período de seca severa em três hábitats e dois controles: borda de mata (B), ilhas de nucleação florestal (I) e matriz herbácea (H), além dos controle-interno (CI) e controleexterno (CE) repetidas em três ambientes geomorfológicos (norte, topo e sul). Em cada hábitat foram transplantadas plântulas isoladas e agrupadas (2-4), com o objetivo de avaliar a mortalidade densidade-dependente. Foram registrados 4214 indivíduos (2828 nas ilhas de nucleação e 1386 nas bordas de mata) distribuídos em 38 famílias e 111 espécies. A análise de agrupamento formou três grupos: g1, com ilhas de nucleação florestal mais iniciais dos três ambientes geomorfológicos (predomínio das ilhas do topo); g2, também por ilhas dos três ambientes geomorfológicos (predomínio das ilhas do norte); e g3, com as ilhas mais desenvolvidas dos três ambientes geomorfológicos (predomínio das ilhas do sul) unidas às bordas de mata. A dispersão zoocórica é dominante nas ilhas dos três grupos, ao passo que a dispersão autocórica apresentou um tendência de aumento de g1 para g3 e a dispersão anemocórica, o inverso. Nas mais desenvolvidas, houve maior riqueza e abundância de espécies lenhosas florestais tardias do que em ilhas mais iniciais. Os testes de aleatorização entre os três grupos revelaram que as áreas de cobertura de g3 (344,5m2) e g2 (156m2) são significativamente maiores que g1 (40,9m2) (p = 0,001), o que não ocorreu entre g3 e g2 (p = 0,063). Os valores de diversidade foram diferentes (p = 0,001) entre g1 (1,56) e g2 (2,16) ou g3 (2,97) e, levemente diferentes (p = 0,04) entre g2 e g3. Retirando as bordas de mata, as ilhas das três diferentes exposições solares diferiram (p = 0,02) em relação à riqueza e a abundância do norte e do topo, do norte e do sul, mas não entre o sul e o topo (p = 0,06). A análise de congruência obteve valor máximo (0,72) unindo riqueza e abundância; se acrescidos a eles a área de cobertura, a diversidade e a densidade das ilhas, este valor ainda permanece alto (0,7). A área de cobertura foi o único parâmetro especial que se mostrou correlacionado com riqueza (R2 = 0,676; p < 0,001) e com a diversidade (R2 = 0,49; p < 0,001). Quanto maior o número de indivíduos, maior a riqueza em g1 (R2 g1 = 0,63; p = 0,002), em g2 (R2 g2 = 0,66; p = 0,004), mas não em e g3 (R2 g3 = 0,6; p = 0,07). A falta de significância na correlação em g3 é resultado do baixo número de unidades amostrais neste grupo (6). com a Os resultados com M. palustris revelam que as taxas de sobrevivências médias mensais aumentaram inversamente com a quantidade de precipitação mensal para todos os ambientes (R2 = 0,46; p = 0,006). A curva de sobrevivência decaiu mais abruptamente no topo do que nos demais ambientes geomorfológicos (p < 0,01), sem diferenças entre norte e sul (p = 0,263). Esta mesma curva foi diferente entre todos os hábitats (p < 0,01), resultando numa maior chance de sobrevivência em B, seguida por I e nula em H. As forças seletivas que causam a morte das plântulas são distintas entre os hábitats (p < 0,01): a herbivoria por invertebrado é maior em H; por vertebrado, é maior em I e H; a seca/doença é maior em B; e o fogo, maior em I. A partir destes resultados, são apresentadas as seguintes conclusões: Os padrões florísticos e espaciais do avanço florestal em ilhas de nucleação refletem os processos de sucessão de um estádio mais inicial e simples para um estádio mais “tardio” e complexo, similar a uma borda de mata. Este processo é limitado pela distribuição de micro-hábitats adequados ao estabelecimento das espécies lenhosas florestais de dispersão zoocórica. A sucessão nas ilhas é retroalimentada positivamente, sendo que a chegada e o estabelecimento de novos indivíduos de espécies florestais atrai mais dispersores de sementes, acelerando a sucessão. A composição florística é dependente, também, da localização da ilha em relação às diferentes exposições solares. Para a sobrevivência de plântulas de M. palutris, a precipitação mensal é o parâmetro determinante primário. A distribuição dos hábitats afeta a dinâmica do avanço florestal na medida em que varia, entre eles, a taxa de sobrevivência de plântulas. Mesmo em anos de seca severa, ocorre o avanço da floresta em hábitats mais sombreados presentes no mosaico. Por fim, pode-se concluir que o avanço da floresta sobre a matriz herbácea é um fenômeno vinculado à natureza florística das matas adjacentes. Na matriz da paisagem, há diversos hábitats potencialmente disponíveis que modificam as chances de sobrevivência de plântulas e, portanto, contribuem, de formas diferentes, para a dinâmica da vegetação de comunidades de populações de espécies lenhosas. Entre os hábitats, a matriz herbácea é o hábitat mais inóspito para plântulas destas espécies e a borda da mata, o mais adequado. As ilhas apresentam uma condição intermediária entre os dois primeiros hábitats, sendo as mais desenvolvidas bastante semelhantes às bordas. Os mecanismos que retardam esta dinâmica são, em ordem de importância, a disponibilidade de água (em todos os hábitats), o herbivoria por vertebrado (nas ilhas e matriz herbácea), o fogo (na matriz herbácea) e, por último, a herbivoria por invertebrado (na matriz herbácea). / The region of granitic hills of Porto Alegre (State of Rio Grande do Sul) in southern brazilian’s region is contituted by a mosiac of forest and open areas (savannas or grassland). In these sites, according to the actual climate, the conditions are suitable for forest, which should mean that this vegetation type is in expansion, invading the surrounding herbaceous matrix. This expansion shows, mainly, an aggregation pattern by woody thickets of forest nucleation. The maintenance of the pattern is made by selective forces like precipitation, fire and herbivory (vertebrade and invertebrade) which are stronger in a juvenil phases of tree popualations. The selective forces act differently within all habitats available for seedling stablishment, creating a spatial arrangment of woody island. On the first chapter of this study, we analysed the floristic and spatial patterns of thickets island of forest expansion in a natural ecotone of forest-savanna, according to the slope (north, top and south) on Santan hill. It compares the floristic ans spatial patterns of thickets and forest edges in this three slopes. On the second chapter, we evaluated monthly, the seedling suvivorship of guamirim (Myrcia palustris DC.; Myrtaceae) under the influence of a severious drought (2004/2005) within differents habitats (forest edge, thickets and herbaceous matrix) of three slopes (north, top and south), during 15 months, by an experimental approach. In both cases, the study was carried out in Santana hill (30°03’ S, 51°07’ W), with maximum altitude 311m above sea level. In order to evaluate the floristic and spatial patterns, we selected 28 thickets of many cover areas (between 5,5 to 904m2) and four forest edges of two sizes (121,5 e 243m2). All woody individuals (h ³ 1m) were registered. The species, their abundance and dispersal modes were registered too. The floristic patterns were analysed by multivariate analyses. The relationship between cover area and diversity/richness or abundance and richness were analysed by linear regression. For survivorship of M. palutris seedlings, we analysed the survival/mortality rates and the mortality causes for this generalist tree. The survival and mortality causes were tested within three habitats and two controls: forest edge (B), thickets (I), herbaceous matrix (H), innercontrol (CI) and external-control (CE). The habitats were placed in three differents slopes (north, top and south). In all traits, we tranplanted isolated and group seedlings (1-4), to investigate the density-dependent mortality. We registered 4214 individuals (2828 in the thickets and 1386 in edge) amongst 38 botanical families and 111 species. The cluster analyses showed three groups: g1 with initial thickets of three slopes (predominance of top thickets), g2 also with thickets of three slopes (predominance of north thickets) and g3 with more development thickets of three slopes (predominance of south thickets) together with four forest edges. The dispersal by animals was dominant in all three groups. The autochorie dispersal showed an increase trend from g1 to g3, while anemochorie dispersal was in opposite way. The randomization tests indicates that g3 cover area (344,4m2) and g2 (156m2) are bigger (p = 0,001) than g1 (40,9m2) and g3 and g2 are no different (p = 0,063). The diversity (H’) was almost the same, with g3 (2,97) or g2 (2,16) higher (p = 0,001) than g1 (1,56), but g3 and g2 are slightly differents (p = 0,04). Without the forest edges samples, the thickets had differents richness and abundance (p = 0,02) from the north to the top or to the south, but no differences (p = 0,06) form the south to the top. The congruence analyses had maximum value (0,72) joining richness and abundance, however with more area cover, diversity and densitiy together, the value keeps high (0,7). Just one single parameter, cover area, could explain the increase of richness (R2 = 0,676; p < 0,001) and diversity (R2 = 0,49; p < 0,001). With increase number of individuals, increase the richness in g1 (R2 g1 = 0,63; p = 0,002), in g2 (R2 g2 = 0,66; p = 0,004), but not in g3 (R2 g3 = 0,6; p = 0,07). The lack of significance in g3 is related to the few sample units of this group (6). The results with M. palustris seedlings showed a inverse relation (R2 = 0,46; p = 0,006) between the mean mensal mortality (mm) and the the mensal precipitation for all habitats in all slopes. The suvivorship curve decreased more abruptly in the top than north or south (p < 0,01), but not form the south to north (p = 0,263). This curve were also different (p < 0,01) amongst all habitats, which makes the chance of survival be higher in B than I and nule in H. The selective forces that cause seedlings death are distinct amongst the habitats (p < 0,01): by invertebrade herbivory higher in H, by vertebrade herbivory higher in I and, drought/disease higher in B and by fire higher in H. Based on this results, we found this conclusions: The floristic and spatial patterns of forest expansion by woody thickets reflect the successional process that ranges from an initial and simple stage (more pioneer) to an latter and complex stage (less pioneer) similar with the forest edge. This process is limited by micro-habitats distribution which are suitable for forest tree seedlings with dispersal by animals. The successional process within the thickets have a positive feedback, where the arrival and stablishment of new individuals from forest species atract more seed dispersors, accelerating the process. The floristic composition depends also from the thicket slope location. For the survivorship of M. palutris seedling, the mensal precipitation was main determinant parameter. The habitat distribution affects the forest expansion dynamics due the differents suvival rates amongst them. Even with a severious drought, there is forest expansion in the mosaic within more shade habitats. We concluded that the forest expansion over the herbaceous matriz is a phenomena dependent from the surrounding forest edges. Within the mosaic landscape, there are several potencial habitats available wich modified the chances of seedling survival and, therefore, had distinct contributions to communities and popualtion dynmics of woody species. Amongst habitats, the herbaceous matriz is the less suitable for seedlings of this specie, while the forest edge is the most one. The thickets has the intermediate conditions, where the most development are very similar to the edges. The mechanisms wich delay this dynamic, on the decreased importance order, is the water availability (all habitats), the vertebrate herbivore (thickets and herbaceous matrix), the fire (herbaceous matrix) and the invertebrade herbivory (herbaceous matrix).

Orientador: Carmen Silvia Fernandes Boaro / Banca: João Domingos Rodrigues / Banca: Giuseppina Pace P. Lima / Banca: Marcos Roberto Furlan / Banca: Antonio Natal Gonçalves / Resumo: Pertencente à família Meliaceae, a espécie Trichilia catigua A. Juss é conhecida popularmente como catigua, cataguá, argelim-rosa e mangalto-catingam. Sua casca apresenta propriedades adstringente, inseticida, purgativa, tônica, bactericida, antiinflamatória e antidepressiva. Com o objetivo de propagar a espécie T. catigua foram desenvolvidos experimentos testando o enraizamento de estacas e a micropropagação com explantes de matrizes e sementes. Os experimentos de enraizamento de estacas foram realizados na primavera 2004, verão 2004/2005, outono, inverno e primavera 2005 e primavera 2006. Em todos os experimentos, estacas com aproximadamente 15 cm de comprimento foram coletadas de árvores adultas e preparadas da parte apical e mediana dos ramos. A seguir, foram submetidas aos reguladores vegetais IBA (ácido indolbutírico), NAA (ácido naftalenoacético) e IAA (ácido 3-indolacético), variando as dosagens. Para a avaliação dos experimentos determinou-se a percentagem de estacas enraizadas, não enraizadas e mortas e quando enraizadas, seu comprimento e diâmetro. No experimento primavera de 2004 foram testadas as concentrações de 1000 e 2000 mg L-1 dos reguladores vegetais IBA, NAA e IAA. As avaliações aos 90 dias após sua instalação revelaram maiores percentagens de enraizamento e iguais a 33,33, 25,00, 22,91 e 23,43 % para estacas submetidas a IBA 1000, 2000 mg L-1 e NAA 1000 e 2000 mg L-1, respectivamente. No verão 2004/2005, outono, inverno e primavera 2005 os experimentos foram conduzidos com as concentrações dos reguladores IBA, NAA e IAA iguais a 1000, 2000 e 3000 mg L-1 e as avaliações foram realizadas após 120 dias. Não houve enraizamento no outono e inverno. A análise conjunta dos resultados obtidos na primavera e no verão mostrou percentagem de enraizamento superior na primavera. A maior percentagem de enraizamento, igual a 19,17%... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The Trichilia catigua A. Juss from the Meliaceae family is popularly known as catigua, cataguá, argelim-rose and mangalto-catingam. Its bark has astringent, insecticide, purgativa, tonic, bactericide, anti-inflammatory and antidepressant properties. With the aim of propagate T. catigua, experiments of rooting with stem cuttings and of micropropagation with explants of trees and seeds were carried out. In all the rooting experiments the stem cuttings with approximately 15 cm of length were collected from adult trees and prepared from the apical and intermediate parts. The cuttings were immersed in the vegetable regulators IBA (Indole-3- butyric acid), ANA (Naphthalene acetic acid) and IAA (Indole-3 acetic acid). The rooted stem cutting and not rooted stem cutting percentage and, when rooted, the length and diameter of roots, were evaluated. In the experiment spring 2004 the concentrations of 1000 and 2000 mg L-1 of IBA, ANA and IAA were tested, with evaluations 90 days after installation. The highest rooting percentage were 33,33, 25,00, 22,91 and 23,43% for IBA 1000, 2000 mg L-1 and ANA 1000 and 2000 mg L-1, respectively. In the summer of 2004/2005, autumn, winter and spring of 2005 IBA, ANA and AIA, with concentration of 1000, 2000 and 3000 mg L-1, were tested. The evaluation was carried out at 120 days. No rooting was observed in autumn and winter. The analysis of data from summer and spring showed higher rooting percentage in spring. The highest rooting percentage was obtained with IBA 3000 mg L-1 (19,17%). In the spring 2006 IBA (1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 and 5000 mg L-1) and ANA (1000, 2000, 3000 mg L-1) were tested. The highest rooting percentage (41,67%) was obtained with IBA 5000 mg L-1. In the in vitro cultivation, explantes obtained from trees were submitted to asepsis treatments with HgCl2, CaOCl2 and NaOCl and inoculated in Murashige & Skoog culture medium (MS) with 25%... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

abstract: Woody plant encroachment is a worldwide phenomenon linked to water availability in semiarid systems. Nevertheless, the implications of woody plant encroachment on the hydrologic cycle are poorly understood, especially at the catchment scale. This study takes place in a pair of small semiarid rangeland undergoing the encroachment of Prosopis velutina Woot., or velvet mesquite tree. The similarly-sized basins are in close proximity, leading to equivalent meteorological and soil conditions. One basin was treated for mesquite in 1974, while the other represents the encroachment process. A sensor network was installed to measure ecohydrological states and fluxes, including precipitation, runoff, soil moisture and evapotranspiration. Observations from June 1, 2011 through September 30, 2012 are presented to describe the seasonality and spatial variability of ecohydrological conditions during the North American Monsoon (NAM). Runoff observations are linked to historical changes in runoff production in each watershed. Observations indicate that the mesquite-treated basin generates more runoff pulses and greater runoff volume for small rainfall events, while the mesquite-encroached basin generates more runoff volume for large rainfall events. A distributed hydrologic model is applied to both basins to investigate the runoff threshold processes experienced during the NAM. Vegetation in the two basins is classified into grass, mesquite, or bare soil using high-resolution imagery. Model predictions are used to investigate the vegetation controls on soil moisture, evapotranspiration, and runoff generation. The distributed model shows that grass and mesquite sites retain the highest levels of soil moisture. The model also captures the runoff generation differences between the two watersheds that have been observed over the past decade. Generally, grass sites in the mesquite-treated basin have less plant interception and evapotranspiration, leading to higher soil moisture that supports greater runoff for small rainfall events. For large rainfall events, the mesquite-encroached basin produces greater runoff due to its higher fraction of bare soil. The results of this study show that a distributed hydrologic model can be used to explain runoff threshold processes linked to woody plant encroachment at the catchment-scale and provides useful interpretations for rangeland management in semiarid areas. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Civil and Environmental Engineering 2013

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / A salinidade à um dos estresses abiÃticos que mais limita a produÃÃo vegetal em razÃo de seus efeitos negativos no crescimento e desenvolvimento das plantas. Em Ãreas degradas por sais verifica-se que o estabelecimento de espÃcies arbÃreas nÃo à fÃcil, principalmente em cultivos de sequeiro e em regiÃes com precipitaÃÃes muito baixas. O objetivo do presente trabalho consiste em avaliar o estabelecimento de doze espÃcies de plantas lenhosas nativas da Caatinga em um gradiente de salinidade do solo, em ambiente protegido, com vistas à obtenÃÃo de subsÃdios para estabelecimento de espÃcies promissoras em condiÃÃes de campo. O trabalho foi dividido em duas etapas: 1. Crescimento e grau de tolerÃncia à salinidade de doze espÃcies nativas da Caatinga em ambiente protegido - O delineamento utilizado foi de blocos ao acaso, no esquema de parcelas subdivididas tendo na parcela mudas de doze espÃcies nativas da Caatinga (Aroeira, Ipà roxo, MororÃ, Mulungu, SabiÃ, Pau-mocÃ, Angico, Catanduva, Frei Jorge, Jurema branca, Tamboril, e Jurema preta) e na subparcela, os cinco nÃveis de salinidade do solo (1,2; 2,7; 4,7; 6,7; 8,4 dS m-1), com cinco repetiÃÃes. Para os nÃveis moderados de salinidade do solo verificou-se que todas as espÃcies se comportaram como tolerantes ou moderadamente tolerantes à salinidade. Considerando-se os graus de reduÃÃo na produÃÃo de matÃria seca total, no maior nÃvel de salinidade, observou-se que apenas a aroeira mostrou-se tolerante à salinidade (T); o ipà roxo e mulungu responderam como moderadamente tolerantes (MT); o mororà e o pau mocà moderadamente sensÃveis (MS); a maioria das espÃcies, sabiÃ, angico, catanduva, frei jorge, jurema branca, jurema preta e tamboril, foram classificadas como sensÃveis (S), com reduÃÃes superiores a 60%; 2. Trocas gasosas e teores de solutos orgÃnicos e inorgÃnicos em seis espÃcies nativas da Caatinga sob condiÃÃes de salinidade - O delineamento utilizado foi de blocos ao acaso, no esquema de parcelas subdivididas tendo na parcela seis mudas de espÃcies nativas da Caatinga (Aroeira, Ipà roxo, MororÃ, Mulungu, Sabià e Pau-mocÃ,), as quais apresentaram diferentes graus de tolerÃncia à salinidade (etapa 1), e na subparcela os cinco nÃveis de salinidade do solo (1,2; 2,7; 4,7; 6,7; 8,4 dS m-1), com cinco repetiÃÃes. A salinidade provocou reduÃÃo nas trocas gasosas foliares, sendo esse efeito independente da espÃcie estudada. No entanto, se observa um maior controle estomÃtico e maior eficiÃncia intrÃnseca no uso da Ãgua nas espÃcies que apresentaram maiores graus de tolerÃncia à salinidade, ou seja, aroeira, ipà roxo e mulungu. No presente estudo nÃo foi possÃvel estabelecer um relacionamento claro entre o acÃmulo dos solutos orgÃnicos estudados e a tolerÃncia à salinidade das seis espÃcies nativas da Caatinga. PorÃm, observou-se forte relaÃÃo entre a relaÃÃo Na/K e os teores de Na nas folhas e o grau de tolerÃncia das espÃcies estudadas, com as espÃcies mais tolerantes apresentando menores variaÃÃes e menores valores com o aumento da salinidade do solo. / Salinity is one of the abiotic stresses that most limits crop production because of its negative effects on plant growth and development. In areas degraded by salts it appears that the establishment of tree species is not easy, especially in rainfed crops and regions with very low precipitation. The objective of this study is to evaluate the establishment of twelve species of woody plants native to the Caatinga in a gradient of soil salinity in greenhouse, in order to obtain grants for the establishment of promising species under field conditions. The work was divided into two steps: 1. Growth and degree of salinity tolerance of twelve native species of Caatinga in a protected environment - The experimental design was randomized blocks in split plots with seedlings in the plot of twelve native species of the Caatinga (Aroeira, Ipà roxo, MororÃ, Mulungu, SabiÃ, Pau-mocÃ, Angico, Catanduva, Frei Jorge, Jurema branca, Tamboril, e Jurema preta) and subplots, the five levels of soil salinity (1.2, 2.7, 4.7, 6.7, 8,4 dS m-1), with five replicates. For moderate levels of soil salinity was found that all species are as tolerant or moderately tolerant to salinity. Considering the degree of reduction in total dry matter production, the highest level of salinity, it was observed that only the mastic proved to be tolerant to salinity (T); The Ipà and mulungu behaved as moderately tolerant (MT); the mororà and pau-mocà moderately susceptible (MS); most species, sabiÃ, angico, catanduva, frei jorge, jurema branca, jurema preta and tamboril, were classified as sensitive (S), with reductions of more than 60%. 2. Gas exchange and concentration of organic and inorganic solutes in six species native to the Caatinga under saline conditions - The design was randomized blocks in split plots with the plot six native species of Caatinga (Aroeira, Ipà roxo, MororÃ, Mulungu, Sabià e Pau-mocÃ,), which showed different degrees of salinity tolerance (step 1), and subplot five levels of soil salinity (1.2, 2.7, 4.7, 6.7, 8.4 dS m-1), with five replicates. Salinity caused reduction in leaf gas exchange, and this effect is independent of the species studied. However, observe a greater stomatal control and greater intrinsic efficiency of water use in species with higher degrees of salt tolerance, ie, aroeira, ipà roxo and mulungu. In the present study could not establish a clear relationship between the accumulation of organic solutes studied and salt tolerance of six species native to the Caatinga. However, observed a strong correlation between the Na/K and Na in the leaves and the degree of tolerance of species with species more tolerant of minor variations and presenting lower values &#8203;&#8203;with increasing soil salinity.

A região dos morros graníticos de Porto Alegre (Estado do Rio Grande do Sul), inserida no sul do Brasil, apresenta uma cobertura vegetal em forma de mosaico natural de florestas e áreas abertas (savanas ou campos). Neste locais, segundo o clima atual, as formações florestais tendem a avançar sobre a matriz herbácea, principalmente de forma agrupada, formando ilhas de nucleação florestal. Este padrão é mantido por forças seletivas como a precipitação, o fogo e a herbivoria (vertebrados e invertebrados), que incidem de maneira mais intensa sobre as fases iniciais das populações de plantas pioneiras da floresta. As forças atuam de maneira distinta nos diversos hábitats disponíveis para o estabelecimento de plântulas, criando um arranjo espacial em forma de ilhas. Esta tese aborda, no primeiro capítulo, os padrões florísticos e espaciais de ilhas de nucleação florestal em ecótono natural de floresta-savana, segundo as diferentes exposições solares (norte, topo e sul) dominantes do morro Santana, comparando-as, floristicamente, com as bordas de mata. No segundo capítulo, é avaliada, experimentalmente, a sobrevivência de plântulas de guamirim (Myrcia palustris DC.; Myrtaceae) sob a influência de uma seca severa em diferentes hábitats (borda de mata, ilhas de nucleação florestal e matriz herbácea) presentes em três exposições solares (norte, topo e sul). Em ambos os casos, os estudos foram conduzidos no morro Santana (30°03’ S, 51°07’ W), cuja altitude máxima é de 311m acima do nível do mar. Para avaliar os padrões florísticos e espaciais, foram selecionadas vinte oito ilhas de nucleação florestal das várias área de cobertura (entre 5,5 a 904m2) em um mosaico natural de floresta-campo e quatro parcelas na borda da mata de dois tamanhos distintos (121,5 e 243m2). As espécies vegetais foram identificadas, classificadas em síndromes de dispersão e a abundância de indivíduos foi registrada. Os padrões florísticos foram observados através de análise multivariada. As relações entre a área de cobertura e diversidade/riqueza e entre o número de indivíduos e a riqueza foram analisadas por regressão linear. Para avaliar a sobrevivência de M. palustris, foram analisadas as taxas de sobrevivência e de mortalidade, bem como as causas desta mortalidade para esta espécie arbórea florestal generalista. As sobrevivências e causas de morte foram avaliadas mensalmente, durante os primeiros meses de vida desta espécie, em um período de seca severa em três hábitats e dois controles: borda de mata (B), ilhas de nucleação florestal (I) e matriz herbácea (H), além dos controle-interno (CI) e controleexterno (CE) repetidas em três ambientes geomorfológicos (norte, topo e sul). Em cada hábitat foram transplantadas plântulas isoladas e agrupadas (2-4), com o objetivo de avaliar a mortalidade densidade-dependente. Foram registrados 4214 indivíduos (2828 nas ilhas de nucleação e 1386 nas bordas de mata) distribuídos em 38 famílias e 111 espécies. A análise de agrupamento formou três grupos: g1, com ilhas de nucleação florestal mais iniciais dos três ambientes geomorfológicos (predomínio das ilhas do topo); g2, também por ilhas dos três ambientes geomorfológicos (predomínio das ilhas do norte); e g3, com as ilhas mais desenvolvidas dos três ambientes geomorfológicos (predomínio das ilhas do sul) unidas às bordas de mata. A dispersão zoocórica é dominante nas ilhas dos três grupos, ao passo que a dispersão autocórica apresentou um tendência de aumento de g1 para g3 e a dispersão anemocórica, o inverso. Nas mais desenvolvidas, houve maior riqueza e abundância de espécies lenhosas florestais tardias do que em ilhas mais iniciais. Os testes de aleatorização entre os três grupos revelaram que as áreas de cobertura de g3 (344,5m2) e g2 (156m2) são significativamente maiores que g1 (40,9m2) (p = 0,001), o que não ocorreu entre g3 e g2 (p = 0,063). Os valores de diversidade foram diferentes (p = 0,001) entre g1 (1,56) e g2 (2,16) ou g3 (2,97) e, levemente diferentes (p = 0,04) entre g2 e g3. Retirando as bordas de mata, as ilhas das três diferentes exposições solares diferiram (p = 0,02) em relação à riqueza e a abundância do norte e do topo, do norte e do sul, mas não entre o sul e o topo (p = 0,06). A análise de congruência obteve valor máximo (0,72) unindo riqueza e abundância; se acrescidos a eles a área de cobertura, a diversidade e a densidade das ilhas, este valor ainda permanece alto (0,7). A área de cobertura foi o único parâmetro especial que se mostrou correlacionado com riqueza (R2 = 0,676; p < 0,001) e com a diversidade (R2 = 0,49; p < 0,001). Quanto maior o número de indivíduos, maior a riqueza em g1 (R2 g1 = 0,63; p = 0,002), em g2 (R2 g2 = 0,66; p = 0,004), mas não em e g3 (R2 g3 = 0,6; p = 0,07). A falta de significância na correlação em g3 é resultado do baixo número de unidades amostrais neste grupo (6). com a Os resultados com M. palustris revelam que as taxas de sobrevivências médias mensais aumentaram inversamente com a quantidade de precipitação mensal para todos os ambientes (R2 = 0,46; p = 0,006). A curva de sobrevivência decaiu mais abruptamente no topo do que nos demais ambientes geomorfológicos (p < 0,01), sem diferenças entre norte e sul (p = 0,263). Esta mesma curva foi diferente entre todos os hábitats (p < 0,01), resultando numa maior chance de sobrevivência em B, seguida por I e nula em H. As forças seletivas que causam a morte das plântulas são distintas entre os hábitats (p < 0,01): a herbivoria por invertebrado é maior em H; por vertebrado, é maior em I e H; a seca/doença é maior em B; e o fogo, maior em I. A partir destes resultados, são apresentadas as seguintes conclusões: Os padrões florísticos e espaciais do avanço florestal em ilhas de nucleação refletem os processos de sucessão de um estádio mais inicial e simples para um estádio mais “tardio” e complexo, similar a uma borda de mata. Este processo é limitado pela distribuição de micro-hábitats adequados ao estabelecimento das espécies lenhosas florestais de dispersão zoocórica. A sucessão nas ilhas é retroalimentada positivamente, sendo que a chegada e o estabelecimento de novos indivíduos de espécies florestais atrai mais dispersores de sementes, acelerando a sucessão. A composição florística é dependente, também, da localização da ilha em relação às diferentes exposições solares. Para a sobrevivência de plântulas de M. palutris, a precipitação mensal é o parâmetro determinante primário. A distribuição dos hábitats afeta a dinâmica do avanço florestal na medida em que varia, entre eles, a taxa de sobrevivência de plântulas. Mesmo em anos de seca severa, ocorre o avanço da floresta em hábitats mais sombreados presentes no mosaico. Por fim, pode-se concluir que o avanço da floresta sobre a matriz herbácea é um fenômeno vinculado à natureza florística das matas adjacentes. Na matriz da paisagem, há diversos hábitats potencialmente disponíveis que modificam as chances de sobrevivência de plântulas e, portanto, contribuem, de formas diferentes, para a dinâmica da vegetação de comunidades de populações de espécies lenhosas. Entre os hábitats, a matriz herbácea é o hábitat mais inóspito para plântulas destas espécies e a borda da mata, o mais adequado. As ilhas apresentam uma condição intermediária entre os dois primeiros hábitats, sendo as mais desenvolvidas bastante semelhantes às bordas. Os mecanismos que retardam esta dinâmica são, em ordem de importância, a disponibilidade de água (em todos os hábitats), o herbivoria por vertebrado (nas ilhas e matriz herbácea), o fogo (na matriz herbácea) e, por último, a herbivoria por invertebrado (na matriz herbácea). / The region of granitic hills of Porto Alegre (State of Rio Grande do Sul) in southern brazilian’s region is contituted by a mosiac of forest and open areas (savannas or grassland). In these sites, according to the actual climate, the conditions are suitable for forest, which should mean that this vegetation type is in expansion, invading the surrounding herbaceous matrix. This expansion shows, mainly, an aggregation pattern by woody thickets of forest nucleation. The maintenance of the pattern is made by selective forces like precipitation, fire and herbivory (vertebrade and invertebrade) which are stronger in a juvenil phases of tree popualations. The selective forces act differently within all habitats available for seedling stablishment, creating a spatial arrangment of woody island. On the first chapter of this study, we analysed the floristic and spatial patterns of thickets island of forest expansion in a natural ecotone of forest-savanna, according to the slope (north, top and south) on Santan hill. It compares the floristic ans spatial patterns of thickets and forest edges in this three slopes. On the second chapter, we evaluated monthly, the seedling suvivorship of guamirim (Myrcia palustris DC.; Myrtaceae) under the influence of a severious drought (2004/2005) within differents habitats (forest edge, thickets and herbaceous matrix) of three slopes (north, top and south), during 15 months, by an experimental approach. In both cases, the study was carried out in Santana hill (30°03’ S, 51°07’ W), with maximum altitude 311m above sea level. In order to evaluate the floristic and spatial patterns, we selected 28 thickets of many cover areas (between 5,5 to 904m2) and four forest edges of two sizes (121,5 e 243m2). All woody individuals (h ³ 1m) were registered. The species, their abundance and dispersal modes were registered too. The floristic patterns were analysed by multivariate analyses. The relationship between cover area and diversity/richness or abundance and richness were analysed by linear regression. For survivorship of M. palutris seedlings, we analysed the survival/mortality rates and the mortality causes for this generalist tree. The survival and mortality causes were tested within three habitats and two controls: forest edge (B), thickets (I), herbaceous matrix (H), innercontrol (CI) and external-control (CE). The habitats were placed in three differents slopes (north, top and south). In all traits, we tranplanted isolated and group seedlings (1-4), to investigate the density-dependent mortality. We registered 4214 individuals (2828 in the thickets and 1386 in edge) amongst 38 botanical families and 111 species. The cluster analyses showed three groups: g1 with initial thickets of three slopes (predominance of top thickets), g2 also with thickets of three slopes (predominance of north thickets) and g3 with more development thickets of three slopes (predominance of south thickets) together with four forest edges. The dispersal by animals was dominant in all three groups. The autochorie dispersal showed an increase trend from g1 to g3, while anemochorie dispersal was in opposite way. The randomization tests indicates that g3 cover area (344,4m2) and g2 (156m2) are bigger (p = 0,001) than g1 (40,9m2) and g3 and g2 are no different (p = 0,063). The diversity (H’) was almost the same, with g3 (2,97) or g2 (2,16) higher (p = 0,001) than g1 (1,56), but g3 and g2 are slightly differents (p = 0,04). Without the forest edges samples, the thickets had differents richness and abundance (p = 0,02) from the north to the top or to the south, but no differences (p = 0,06) form the south to the top. The congruence analyses had maximum value (0,72) joining richness and abundance, however with more area cover, diversity and densitiy together, the value keeps high (0,7). Just one single parameter, cover area, could explain the increase of richness (R2 = 0,676; p < 0,001) and diversity (R2 = 0,49; p < 0,001). With increase number of individuals, increase the richness in g1 (R2 g1 = 0,63; p = 0,002), in g2 (R2 g2 = 0,66; p = 0,004), but not in g3 (R2 g3 = 0,6; p = 0,07). The lack of significance in g3 is related to the few sample units of this group (6). The results with M. palustris seedlings showed a inverse relation (R2 = 0,46; p = 0,006) between the mean mensal mortality (mm) and the the mensal precipitation for all habitats in all slopes. The suvivorship curve decreased more abruptly in the top than north or south (p < 0,01), but not form the south to north (p = 0,263). This curve were also different (p < 0,01) amongst all habitats, which makes the chance of survival be higher in B than I and nule in H. The selective forces that cause seedlings death are distinct amongst the habitats (p < 0,01): by invertebrade herbivory higher in H, by vertebrade herbivory higher in I and, drought/disease higher in B and by fire higher in H. Based on this results, we found this conclusions: The floristic and spatial patterns of forest expansion by woody thickets reflect the successional process that ranges from an initial and simple stage (more pioneer) to an latter and complex stage (less pioneer) similar with the forest edge. This process is limited by micro-habitats distribution which are suitable for forest tree seedlings with dispersal by animals. The successional process within the thickets have a positive feedback, where the arrival and stablishment of new individuals from forest species atract more seed dispersors, accelerating the process. The floristic composition depends also from the thicket slope location. For the survivorship of M. palutris seedling, the mensal precipitation was main determinant parameter. The habitat distribution affects the forest expansion dynamics due the differents suvival rates amongst them. Even with a severious drought, there is forest expansion in the mosaic within more shade habitats. We concluded that the forest expansion over the herbaceous matriz is a phenomena dependent from the surrounding forest edges. Within the mosaic landscape, there are several potencial habitats available wich modified the chances of seedling survival and, therefore, had distinct contributions to communities and popualtion dynmics of woody species. Amongst habitats, the herbaceous matriz is the less suitable for seedlings of this specie, while the forest edge is the most one. The thickets has the intermediate conditions, where the most development are very similar to the edges. The mechanisms wich delay this dynamic, on the decreased importance order, is the water availability (all habitats), the vertebrate herbivore (thickets and herbaceous matrix), the fire (herbaceous matrix) and the invertebrade herbivory (herbaceous matrix).

Few field studies have assessed the temporal and spatial dynamics of wood in small streams (bankfull widths < 5 m) flowing through forest ecosystems dominated by stand replacing wildfires. Comparisons of instream wood loads associated with clearcut harvesting, wildfire, and undisturbed, old forests are also scarce. The two main objectives of this research were: (1) to document the temporal and spatial variability of wood and its geomorphic role in relation to stand development stage; and (2) to compare wood loads and its geomorphic role in relation to streamside clearcut harvesting, wildfires and older, undisturbed forest stands. This research focused on 38 small streams with gradients less than 14% situated in the plateau regions of south-central British Columbia, Canada. A distinct temporal trend in wood loading was observed, with elevated volumes present 30-50 years subsequent to the wildfire disturbances following a “reverse J-shaped” trend in relation to time since the last major wildfire disturbance. The number of wood pieces was highly variable and few of the wood characteristics exhibited a significant trend in relation to time since the last major wildfire disturbance. Except at the smallest spatial scale (<3 m segments longitudinally along the stream) the spatial distribution of wood followed a random pattern with no trend, indicating that wood loads are related to local wood recruitment processes associated with episodic or chronic tree mortality and low wood transport. Instream wood volumes were three times higher in streams recently (30 – 50 years ago) disturbed by wildfire as compared to the older riparian forest stands, confirming that wildfire disturbance is an important mechanism to recruit wood into streams. No significant differences in wood loads were identified between the streamside clearcut streams and the wildfire-disturbed or older, undisturbed streams. The lack of reductions in wood loads are likely related to the low transport capacity of our study streams, retention of non-merchantable trees and recruitment of slash from harvesting. A lack of morphologic variability was observed in relation to the disturbances indicating that the streams included in this study are relatively robust and unresponsive to wildfire or streamside clearcut harvesting disturbances. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate