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This thesis is engaged in the formation of the concept of class in the second generation of the Czech (Bohemian) Working-Class Movement. I selected time termination, because of the beginning of the 1890s involved onset of second generation of working-class movement, which deflected from radikalism the first generation of pioneers to engagement oscillating between reformism of Bebel and revisionism of Bernstein. Even since the early 1890s gradually alternated Class about itself (Klasse an sich) at precisely defined Class for itself (Klasse für sich). Thesis seeks to answer the question: Why occured to the above-mentioned phenomenon in the second generation? The traditional explanation of Marxist Historians about the end of Persecutory Phase and logical accession Mass Party seems too schematic. The year 1914 is selected as an upper time milestone, because the First World War caused a series of high quantitative and qualitative transitions in social relations: proletarianization of wide classes in society; fatal deteroration of living, social, health and political conditions of workers. The Working Classes in the prewar and wartime periods are two different social phenomena, which ought to analyse historically separately. The thesis is conceptually draws on Benedict Anderson's seminal work Imagined...

Both modern and contemporary commentators have over the past 140 years written many millions of words on the subject of the abuse of child labour in factories and trades in the first half of the nineteenth century. The subject was highly charged with emotion at that time. The detailed observations of intelligent and perceptive men contrast with the partial accounts of honest and not so honest early Victorians. Together they have blurred the definition between truth and the embellishment of it. This lack of clarity on the issue of child labour has left modern historians great scope for widely differing interpretations and the evidence for believing that conditions were as bad or as good as suited their particular point of view. It is regretted that there is insufficient material in South Africa to enter fully into the often bitter arguments of the, so called, 'optimists' and 'pessimists' in respect of the improvement or deterioration of the standard of living of the labouring classes in the first half of the nineteenth century. Child labour was not one of the inventions of the Industrial Revolution. The labour of children within the domestic economy had, certainly from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, been regarded as socially acceptable. The aim of this work is to trace the conditions of child labour in the early years of the Industrial Revolution as the spread of factories demanded more and more young hands and imposed an alien and sometimes inhuman discipline on the workers. As the numbers of children employed expanded not only in total but also as a proportion of the total labour force, the realisation that the labour of children was presenting a grave social problem gradually dawned upon the governments of the time. This work traces the development of legislation from the first faltering step forward of the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act of 1802 to the passing of the Factory Act of 1847 which provided for a ten hours' working day. This type of legislation was an experiment which developed in efficiency by trial and error. Detailed consideration is given to the arguments of the supporters and the opponents of restrictions being placed on the complete freedom of the manufacturers. This was a battle eventually to be won by the supporters of restriction on the freedom of the masters. Nearly twenty years have passed since detail ed consideration was given to the parallel development of the awareness that the labour of children was a problem and the steps taken to alleviate it. The aim in this work is to consider the most recent publications that deal with particular aspects of the problem. The intention is to penetrate the contradictory claims made in the first half of the nineteenth century, and to attempt to clarify as accurately as possible the realities of the conditions of child labour and to trace their improvement to the middle of the century.

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No description available.

Throughout history men and women have not always been given the same opportunities to work. As a result of prevailing politics and norms, women have been relegated to household chores. To portray women and the working-class in the same picture can therefore be contradictory - how do you portray the working-class through those who do not work? The aim of this study is to explore, with help from Panofsky’s iconology as a method for image analysis, how women from the working-class are being portrayed in art. The study is focused on artworks made by a group of Swedish artists active during the first half of the 20th century. The group’s main motifs were the working-class and social injustices, and they used their art as a form of activism against the ongoing world war, capitalism and patriarchy. Common for the portraits of women by all of the artists is that they portray women as housewives and mothers. Explanations for this are searched, and found, in Ulla-Britt Tillman’s theory about women as a motif in working-class art and Laura Mulvey’s Male gaze theory.