Glaciologer har under en längre tid observerat förändringar av glaciärer på Svalbard, att några minskar i storlek och att vissa växer. Avsmältning med ökade havsnivåer och potentiellt ändrad havscirkulation till följd är ett scenario som berör människor över hela värden. Dessa förändringar kan eventuellt förklaras genom att koppla de meteorologiska förhållandena i området till större cirkulationsförändringar. De meteorologiska förhållandena över Svalbard har simulerats med en regional klimatmodell, WRF (Weather Research Forecasting), för tre domäner med upplösningarna 24 km, 8 km och 2,7 km. Modellen har testats i två versioner, standard-WRF med förvalda processbeskrivningar och WRF med processbeskrivningar anpassade för polärt klimat och har drivits med ERA-Interim data, som är en återanalys av de globala väderförhållandena framtagen av ECMWF. Resultaten från WRF har verifierats mot observationer uppmätta av AWS-stationer (Automatic Weather Station). Följande parametrar ingår i studien: temperatur, vindhastighet, specifik fuktighet, kortvågig in och utstrålning samt långvågig instrålning.  Simulationer med standard-WRF underskattar samtliga strålningsparametrar. En felaktig strålningsbalans leder till att standard-WRF simulerar för låga temperaturer. Att mängden kortvågig och långvågig instrålning är för liten beror förmodligen på att standard-WRF simulerar för stor mängd höga moln och för liten mängd låga moln. För vindhastigheten och den långvågiga instrålningen ökar respektive minskar korrelationen när resultaten från nedskalning från 24 km till 8 km med standard-WRF analyseras. Bäst korrelation för vindsimuleringar fås med standard-WRF i upplösningen 8 km. För temperaturen ger ERA-Interim bättre korrelation mot observationer än simuleringar med standard-WRF. Ett test av polaroptimerade WRF visar att detta utförande av modellen bättre förutsäger strålningsbalansen över glaciärerna och som en följd av detta fås en mer överensstämmande temperaturmodellering. Polaroptimerade WRF simulerar en mindre mängd höga moln och en strörre mängd låga moln jämfört med standard-WRF. Bättre molnmodelleringarna i kombination med ett mer passande schema som beskriver mängden kortvågig strålning ger en förbättrad energibalans. Vindmodelleringar i upplösningen 2,7 km utförda av standard-WRF och polaroptimerade WRF ger minskad korrelation och ökad spridning jämfört med simuleringar i upplösningen 8 km. Denna rapport visar på att polaroptimerade WRF är ett bättre alternativ än standard-WRF när Svalbards meteorologiska parametrar ska simuleras.

Tropical cyclones (TCs) can make significant size changes during their lifetime. Being able to accurately forecast TC size change is important for predicting the onset of storm surge as well as the spatial extent of damaging winds. TC size changes can occur from internal storm dynamics, such as eyewall replacement cycle or from changes in the synoptic environment. In this study, the impacts of changing the atmospheric temperature and air-sea temperature difference on TC size and structure are investigated. The study is conducted in two parts: the first part uses the WRF-ARW model to test the sensitivity of TC size changes to simple changes in the environment; the second part to validates the results from the first part by characterizing the environments associated with real cases of TC size change in the North Atlantic basin. It is found that when the simulated atmosphere is cooled, the initial specific humidity and convective available potential energy (CAPE) decrease but the surface energy fluxes from the ocean increase. The higher surface fluxes produce a wider area of radially-inflowing air in the boundary layer, which supports a larger precipitation field and the formation of outer-core spiral rainbands. The larger precipitation field translates to a larger wind field, which is likely related to the diabatic production of potential vorticity. In contrast, when the atmosphere is warmed the surface energy fluxes reduce, which ultimately inhibits the growth of the TC wind field. The higher initial CAPE and moisture content, however, allow the TC to spin up more rapidly with a compact core of intense precipitation. Thus, it is not the temperature of the atmosphere that is causing the size changes, but instead it is the higher surface energy fluxes that arise from the increased air-sea temperature difference. Diagnostics show that fluxes of angular momentum from the environment are not responsible for the simulated TC size increases, even when the gradient in Earth vorticity is included. Rather, it is the production of energy due to the fluxes from the ocean that is responsible for the TC size increases in these simulations. Finally, a larger TC will increase in size more than a smaller TC in the same environment. In the second part of the study, the environments associated with real cases of TC size change in the North Atlantic Basin were characterized. Size changes were evaluated using the Tropical Cyclone Extended Best Track Dataset, and the environments associated with these size changes were examined using the 6-hourly, ERA-Interim global reanalysis dataset. Environmental composites show that the TCs that made size changes in the deep tropics were typically associated with more environmental, mid-level humidity and higher air-sea temperature difference. The TCs that made large size changes in the extratropics were associated with highly-baroclinic environments and high mid-level moisture south of the TC-circulation center. In general, the environments that were associated with TC size increases in the North Atlantic showed similar characteristics to the size change environments simulated in the first part of this study. In addition, the presence of high, mid-level moisture in both the deep tropics and extratropics was consistent with the results of other modeling studies that have explored the impact of environmental moisture on TC size changes.

The Weather Research and Forecasting with Chemistry (WRF-Chem) Model is an “online” regional scale prediction system designed to simulate many detailed meteorological, gas-phase chemical and aerosol processes, with full coupling between the different components. The impacts of aerosol particles are complex and spatially heterogeneous, their impacts varying greatly at the regional scale. Modelling the properties and impacts in a systematic manner requires the coupling between different chemical phases, meteorological and physical parameterisations a model such as WRF-Chem offers. This manuscript documents several developments, and their evaluation, that have been made to the WRF-chem model to improve its representation of detailed gas-phase chemical and aerosol processes. The first study gives an overview of developments made for modeling the North-West European region, including the addition of a new semi-explicit chemical mechanism, N2O5 heterogeneous chemistry and modifications to the sea-spray emissions routine to include fine-mode organic material. The broad impacts of these developments were assessed in the study, while a follow up paper (included in supplementary material) investigated more deeply the impacts of N2O5 heterogeneous chemistry. The second study discusses modifications to WRF-Chem and emission products to improve modelled representation of biomass burning aerosol particles over Brazil. Model results were compared with aircraft measurements and found to represent aerosol particle size distributions and cloud condensation nuclei concentrations reasonably well, but too much biomass burning aerosol were transported up to high altitudes (4-8 km) by the model. In the third study, nested simulations (at higher resolutions than those used in the second study) over Brazil were used to evaluate the impact of aerosol particles on the local radiative balance, by comparing model results from simulations with and with- out aerosol-radiative feedbacks. The instantaneous clear sky aerosol-radiation forcings were found to have a net cooling of -5.0 W m−2 at the top of the atmosphere. Issues with resolving aerosol–cloud interactions, because of the convective parameterisation and differences in model setup across scales, made evaluating semi- and indirect effects impossible.

This work approaches the topic of modeling the atmospheric boundary layer in four research projects, which are summarized below. i) The diurnal cycles of near-surface meteorological parameters over Antarctic sea ice in six widely used atmospheric reanalyses were validated against observations from Ice Station Weddell. The station drifted from February through May 1992 and provided the most extensive set of meteorological observations ever collected in the Antarctic sea ice zone. For the radiative and turbulent surface fluxes, both the amplitude and shape of the diurnal cycles varied considerably among different reanalyses. Near-surface temperature, specific humidity, and wind speed in the reanalyses all featured small diurnal ranges, which, in most cases, fell within the uncertainties of the observed cycle. A skill score approach revealed the superiority of the ERA-Interim reanalysis in reproducing the observed diurnal cycles. An explanation for the shortcomings in the reanalyses is their failure to capture the diurnal cycle in cloud cover fraction, which leads to errors in other quantities as well. Apart from the diurnal cycles, NCEP-CFSR gave the best error statistics. ii) The accuracy of prediction of stable atmospheric boundary layers depends on the parameterization of the surface layer which is usually derived from the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory. In this study, several surface-layer models in the format of velocity and potential temperature Deacon numbers were compared to observations from CASES-99, Cardington, and Halley datasets. The comparisons were hindered by a large amount of scatter within and among datasets. Tests utilizing R2 demonstrated that the Quasi-Normal Scale Elimination (QNSE) theory exhibits the best overall performance. Further proof of this was provided by 1D simulations with the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. iii) The increasing number of physics parameterization schemes adopted in numerical weather forecasting models has resulted in a proliferation of inter-comparison studies in recent years. Many of these studies concentrated on determining which parameterization yields results closest to observations rather than analyzing the reasons underlying the differences. In this work, the performance of two 1.5-order boundary layer parameterizations was studied, the QNSE and Mellor-Yamada-Janjić (MYJ) schemes, in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. The objectives were to isolate the effect of stability functions on the near-surface values and vertical profiles of virtual temperature, mixing ratio and wind speed. The results demonstrate that the QNSE stability functions yield better error statistics for 2-m virtual temperature but higher up the errors related to QNSE are slightly larger for virtual temperature and mixing ratio. A surprising finding is the sensitivity of the model results to the choice of the turbulent Prandtl number for neutral stratification (Prt0): in the Monin-Obukhov similarity function for heat, the choice of Prt0 is sometimes more important than the functional form of the similarity function itself. There is a stability-related dependence to this sensitivity: with increasing near-surface stability, the relative importance of the functional form increases. In near-neutral conditions, QNSE exhibits too strong vertical mixing attributed to the applied turbulent kinetic energy subroutine and the stability functions including the effect of Prt0. iv) In recent years, many eddy-diffusivity mass flux (EDMF) planetary boundary layer (PBL) parameterizations have been introduced. Yet, most validations are based on idealized setups and/or single column models. To address this gap, this study focused on the effect the mass flux part has on the performance in the QNSE-EDMF PBL scheme in the WRF model by comparing the results to observations from the CASES-97 field campaign. In addition, two refined versions, one introducing the parameterized clouds to the WRF radiation scheme, and the second adding a different entrainment formulation, were evaluated. The introduction of mass flux reduced errors in the average moisture profile but virtual temperature and wind speed profiles did not change as much. The turbulent flux profiles for modeled virtual potential temperature were little affected, with consistent reasonable agreement with observations, if one allows for biases in the observed data and modeled surface fluxes. However, the water vapor flux divergences from QNSE tend to be more negative than observed, while including the mass flux part tends to make the divergences more positive, the latter at least partially due to deeper model PBLs resulting from excessive model surface virtual temperature fluxes. Further, both virtual potential temperature and water vapor flux profiles display spurious spikes attributed to the way the non-local and local terms interact in the model. The influence of the mass flux schemes extends to 60 – 100-km scale circulation features, which were greatly modified by both the inclusion of mass flux and the new entrainment formulation. Adding mass flux based clouds to the radiation calculation improved the time and space averaged modeled incoming shortwave flux. The choice of the representation for entrainment/detrainment often affected the results to the same extent as adding mass flux did.

Magíster en Meteorología y Climatología / En el valle de Cajamarca, ubicado en la sierra norte del Perú, la utilización de modelos meteorológicos de mesoescala y la modelación atmosférica son escasos al igual que los estudios de caracterización climática. En la presente investigación se realizó la caracterización climática de las principales variables meteorológicas en el valle utilizando datos de la red de estaciones del SENAMHI. Además se modelaron las condiciones de mesoescala para los meses de marzo y agosto de 2010 y así medir el desempeño del modelo meteorológico de mesoescala WRF en la representación de temperatura, precipitación y vientos. Los resultados de la modelación reproducen de buena forma el ciclo diario de temperatura, la modesta variabilidad inter-diaria de las temperaturas máximas y la mayor variabilidad de las temperaturas mínimas. El modelo sobrestimó en magnitud a las temperaturas mínimas en las partes altas y en el fondo del valle, mientras que en la ladera fueron subestimadas. Reproduce de buena manera la circulación local durante el día, lo que no ocurre con los vientos nocturnos. El modelo logra captar la estacionalidad marcada de la precipitación con condiciones secas durante agosto y las lluviosas que ocurren en marzo, sobrestimando sus valores sobre todo en las partes altas del valle.

Wind and waves play a major role in important ocean dynamical processes, such as the exchange of heat, momentum and gases between atmosphere and ocean, that greatly contributes to the earth climate and marine lives. Knowledge on wind and wave weather and climate is crucial for a wide range of applications, including oceanographic studies, maritime activities and ocean engineering. Despite being one of the important world shipping routes, the wind-wave characteristics in the Red Sea are yet to be fully explored. Because of the scarcity of waves data in the Red Sea, numerical models become crucial and provide very powerful tools to extrapolate wind and wave data in space, and backward and forward in time. Unlike open oceans, enclosed basins wave have different characteristics, mainly because of their local generation processes. The complex orography on both sides of the Red Sea makes the local wind, and consequently wave, modeling very challenging. This thesis considers the modeling of wind-wave characteristics in the Red Sea, including their climate variability and trends using state-of-the-art numerical models and all available observations. Different approaches are investigated to model and understand the general and unusual wind and wave conditions in the basin using standard global meteorological products and customised regional wind and wave models. After studying and identifying the main characteristics of the wind-wave variability in the Red Sea, we demonstrate the importance of generating accurate atmospheric forcing through data assimilation for reliable wave simulations. In particular, we show that the state-of-the-art physical formulation of wave models is not suitable to model the unique situation of the two opposing wind-waves systems in the Red Sea Convergence Zone, and propose and successfully test a modification to the input and white-capping source functions to address this problem. We further investigate the climate variability and trends of wind and waves in the Red Sea using high-resolution wind and wave reanalyses that have been generated as part of this thesis. An innovative spectral partition technique is first applied to distinguish the dominant wave systems. Our analysis demonstrates that winds, and consequently waves, exhibit a decreasing trend in the Red Sea. This is mainly attributed to a remarkable weakening of the winds protruding from the Mediterranean Sea. We also use these highresolution reanalyses to assess the potential for harvesting wind and wave energy from the Red Sea.

No description available.

This work is aimed to study the capabilities of CMAQ and WRF-Chem models for predicting the PM10 and PM2.5 pollution in the west side of Saudi Arabia. To do this fairly, one-month simulations (April, 2021) are done in both models using same initial and boundary conditions, meteorology and anthropogenic emissions. Unique configurations in both models allow to compare differences in the chemical processes and natural emissions estimation of each model. Simulated PM (PM10 and PM2.5) surface concentrations and AOD are compared with available observations to assess models’ performance. Moreover, CMAQ is used to study a real air pollution episode generated by a fire in the Rabigh Electricity Power Station between April 8 and April 11, 2021.

One of the Sustainable Development Goals set in 2015 by the United Nations aims to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all, increasing the global share of renewable energy to 32-35% by 2030. Moving towards this goal, the University of Trento funded the interdepartmental strategic project ERiCSol (Energie Rinnovabili e Combustibili Solari), in order to promote the research on renewable energy storage and solar fuels. The research activity presented in this thesis lies in the framework of this project, focusing on the development of new advanced simulation approaches to improve the estimation of the wind resource availability and the related power production for Italian wind farms in complex terrain. The wind farms, operated by the company AGSM S.p.A., are located in two different geographical contexts: Rivoli Veronese and Affi are at the inlet of the Adige Valley, while Casoni di Romagna and Carpinaccio Firenzuola, are on the crest of the Apennines close to the borders between the provinces of Bologna e Firenze. The analysis of data from year-long field measurements highlighted the different peculiarities of these areas. The wind farms at the mouth of the Adige Valley are influenced by a daily periodic thermally-driven circulation, characterised by a nocturnal intense down-valley wind alternating with a diurnal weaker up-valley wind, while the Apennines wind farms are primarily affected by synoptic-scale winds. Simulations, with the mesoscale Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, are performed and compared with field measurements in both cases, to highlight strengths and weaknesses. The results show that the model is able to capture with good accuracy wind speed and direction in the Apennines wind farms, while larger errors arise for Rivoli Veronese and Affi wind farms, where the intensity of the nocturnal down-valley wind is generally underestimated. Considering the former case, modelled and observed yearly wind speed density distributions are compared, in order to evaluate the impact of model errors in the estimation of the wind resource at these sites. Since reliable simulations of the wind resource are also essential to ensure the security in power transmission and to prevent penalties to energy operators, an analysis of the power production is also performed, to evaluate how errors in the estimate of the resource translate into errors in the estimate of the production. Considering the wind farms at the mouth of the Adige Valley, the research work mainly focuses on the evaluation of the impact of data assimilation by means of observational nudging on model results, in order to optimize the setup for operational forecasts. Different configurations are tested and compared, varying the temporal window for the assimilation of local data.

Gases and particles released by volcanoes pose a serious hazard to humans and society. Emissions can be transported over long distances before being reduced to harmless concentrations. Knowing which areas are, or will be, exposed to volcanic emissions is an important part inreducing the impact on human health and society. In this thesis, the dispersion of volcanic emissions is studied using a set of atmospheric models. The work includes contribution to the development of the Lagrangian Particle Dispersion Model FLEXPART-WRF. Three case studies have been performed, one studying potential ash emissions from potential future eruptions on Iceland, a second covering SO2 emissions from Mt. Nyiragongo in D.R. Congo, and a third studying the SO2 emission rate of the Holuhraun eruption (Iceland) in 2014–2015. The first study covers volcanic ash hazard for air traffic over Europe. Three years of meteorological data are used to repeatedly simulate dispersion from different eruption scenarios. The simulations are used to study the probability of hazardous concentrations in ash in European airspace. The ash hazard shows a seasonal variation with a higher probability of efficient eastward transport in winter, while summer eruptions pose a more persistent hazard. In the second study, regional gas exposure around Mt. Nyiragongo is modelled using flux measurements to improve the description of the emission source. Gases are generally transported to the north-west in June–August and to the south-west in December–January. A diurnal variation due to land breeze around lake Kivu contributes to high concentrations of SO2 along the northern shore during the night. Potentially hazardous concentrations are occasionally reached in populated areas in the region, but mainly during the nights. The third study uses inverse dispersion modelling to determine the height and emission rates based on traverse measurements of the plume at 80–240 km from the source. The calculated source term yields better agreement with satellite observations compared to commonly used column sources. The work in this thesis presents improvements in dispersion modelling of volcanic emissions through improved models, more accurate representation of the source terms, and through incorporating new types of measurements into the modelling systems. / Gas- och partikelutsläpp från vulkaner utgör en fara för människor och för vårt samhälle. Utsläppen kan transporteras över långa avstånd innan de reduceras till oskadliga halter. Att känna till vilka områden som utsätts för, eller kommer utsättas för, utsläppen är ett viktigt verktyg föratt minska påverkan på folkhälsa och samhälle. I avhandlingen studeras spridningen av utsläpp från vulkanutbrott med hjälp av en uppsättning numeriska atmosfärsmodeller. Den Lagrangiska Partikelspridningsmodellen FLEXPART-WRF har förbättrats och applicerats för spridningsmodellering av vulkanutbrott. Tre studier har utförts, en fokuserar på vulkanaska från potentiella framtida utbrott på Island, den andra studerar SO2-ustläpp från vulkanen Nyiragongo i Demokratiska Republiken Kongo, och den tredje studerar SO2-ustläpp från utbrottet i Holuhraun (Island) 2014–2015. Den första studien uppskattar sannolikheten för att vulkanaska från framtida vulkanutbrott på Island ska överskrida de gränsvärden som tillämpas för flygtrafik. Tre år av meteorologisk data används för att simulera spridningen från olika utbrottsscenarier. Sannolikheten för skadliga halter aska varierar med årstid, med en högre sannolikhet för effektiv transport österut under vintermånaderna, sommarutbrott är istället mer benägna att orsaka långvariga problem överspecifika områden. In den andra studien undersöks spridningen av SO2 från Nyiragongo över en ettårsperiod. Flödesmätningar av plymen används för att förbättra källtermen i modellen. Gaserna transporteras i regel mot nordväst i juni–augusti och mot sydväst i december–februari En dygnsvariation, kopplad till mesoskaliga processer runt Kivusjön, bidrar till förhöjda halter av SO2 nattetid längs Kivusjöns norra kust. Potentiellt skadliga halter av SO2 uppnås av och till i befolkade områden men huvudsakligen nattetid. Den tredje studien utnyttjar inversmodellering för att avgöra plymhöjd och gasutsläpp baserat på traversmätningar av plymen runt 80–240 km från utsläppskällan. Den beräknade källtermen resulterar i bättre överensstämmelse mellan modell- och satellitdata jämfört med enklare källtermer. Arbetet i den här avhandlingen presenterar flertalet förbättringar för spridningsmodellering av vulkanutbrott genom bättre modeller, nogrannare beskrivning av källtermer, och genom nya metoder för tillämpning av olika typer av mätdata.