This diploma thesis deals with a defect detection with X-rays in the manufacturing procedure in the electrotechnical field. The work summarises the knowledge about technical possibilities of an X-ray device Cougar of YXlon company. Part of the work is focusing on scanning in 2D, 3D visualization and automatic analysis. The thesis describes inspection methods of a connector connection, the quality of a soldered joint and an encapsulated product.

O objetivo do presente trabalho foi a avaliação do envelhecimento de um tubo de raios X com anodo de tungstênio utilizado para aplicações de radiodiagnóstico, por meio de aplicação de cargas de acordo com distribuições de cargas de trabalho da realidade brasileira e avaliações periódicas de grandezas associadas à qualidade de radiação produzida. Para o propósito deste trabalho, um sistema clínico com retificação monofásica de onda completa foi utilizado. Para avaliação em longo prazo das características do tubo de raios X relacionadas à carga de trabalho foi necessária a medição de parâmetros que pudessem representar de forma quantitativa o envelhecimento do tubo de raios X, estando estes relacionados principalmente ao desgaste do anodo. Esta medição indireta do envelhecimento do tubo levou a escolha de quatro parâmetros, alguns deles normalmente empregados na prática de controle de qualidade de equipamentos de radiologia diagnóstica: primeira e segunda camada semi-redutora (CSR), dimensões dos pontos focais, medida não invasiva do Potencial de Pico Prático e espectrometria de raios X. Estes parâmetros foram medidos inicialmente e após cada aplicação de carga pertinente. Para garantir a confiabilidade dos resultados, condições de reprodutibilidade foram estabelecidas para cada parâmetro de avaliação. As incertezas envolvidas em todos os processos de medição foram calculadas para avaliação da real contribuição dos efeitos do envelhecimento do tubo de raios X nos parâmetros não invasivos. Dentre os parâmetros avaliados, os que mostraram maior sensibilidade aos efeitos da aplicação de carga em longo prazo foram as energias médias obtidas por meio de espectrometria de raios X e as camadas semi-redutoras. Um modelo relacionado a estes parâmetros foi aplicado e estimativas da taxa de envelhecimento do tubo de raios X para diferentes tensões de aceleração e correntes anódicas foram obtidas. / The objective of the present work was the evaluation of an x ray tube aging with an anode made of tungsten, used in radio diagnostic. Workloads were applied, in accordance with Brazilian workload distribution, and periodic measurements of quantities related to the radiation quality of the beam were performed. For the purpose of this work, a single phase, full bridge clinical system was employed. For the long term x ray tube characteristics evaluation related to the applied workload, it was necessary to measure parameters that could quantitatively represent the tube aging, with special attention to the anode roughening. For the indirect measurement of tube aging, four parameters were chosen, some of them normally applied in x ray diagnostic quality control: first and second half value layers (HVL), focal spot dimensions, non invasive measurement of Practical Peak Voltage (PPV) and x ray spectroscopy. These parameters were measured before any workload and after each workload intervals. To assure confidence of the results reproducibility conditions were stated to each evaluated parameter. The uncertainties involved in all measurement processes were calculated to evaluate the real contributions of x ray tube aging effects on non invasive parameters. Within all evaluated parameters, the most sensitive to long term workload were the mean energy obtained from spectroscopy and half value layers. A model related to these parameters was applied and estimates of x ray tube aging rate for different acceleration voltages and anodic currents were calculated.

Σκοπός της εργασίας αυτής είναι η χαρτογράφηση της δευτερογενούς ακτινοβολίας ακτινογραφικής λυχνίας μέσα στην αίθουσα εξέτασης, ενός συμβατικού ακτινολογικού μηχανήματος, συναρτήσει διαφόρων ακτινογραφικών παραμέτρων. Στόχος των μετρήσεων αυτών είναι ο υπολογισμός της σκεδαζόμενης ακτινοβολίας και της διαρρέουσας ακτινοβολίας σε διάφορες γωνίες από 0 μοίρες έως και 360 μοίρες, με βήμα 45 μοιρών, χρησιμοποιώντας έναν κυλινδρικό σκεδαστή νερού διαστάσεων: διάμετρος = 38 cm και ύψος 20 cm, σε διάφορες αποστάσεις από τον σκεδαστή (1.0 m, 1.5 m και 2.0 m), για διαφορετικό πάχος φίλτρου λυχνίας και διαφορετικά στοιχεία ακτινογράφησης. / Secondary radiation in classical radiography units in different angles (0-360 angles)and in different distances (1.0 m, 1.5 m and 2.0 m) around the X-Ray tube. The phnatom we use was cylindrical with water, the dimancional of the phantom was: d = 38 cm and h = 20 cm. Different thickness of tube filter and differnt kV,mA,mAs.

Aortic stenosis is the most common acquired heart valve condition. Open-heart surgical aortic valve replacement is an effective treatment for patients who receive it. However, approximately one-third of patients who require this treatment do not receive it due to the risks associated with the surgery. Percutaneous aortic valve replacement (PAVR) is a minimally invasive technique that can replace the aortic valve of patients contraindicated for open-heart surgery. Although PAVR is now entering clinical practice, a closed bore hybrid x-ray/MRI (CBXMR) imaging system is under development to improve the safety and efficacy of PAVR. This system will harness the complementary strengths of x-ray imaging (surgical tool/vascular imaging) and MRI (cardiac soft tissue contrast) to deploy a bioprosthesis in the aortic annulus. An x-ray C-arm will be placed about 1 m from the entrance of the MRI scanner to facilitate smooth intermodality patient transfer during the procedure. The performance of a rotating-anode x-ray tube in the magnetic fringe field of a 1.5 T MRI scanner was investigated. A rotating-anode x-ray tube provides the fluoroscopy and angiography needed for PAVR. The magnetic fringe field can affect the ability of the x-ray tube to dissipate heat. It was shown that the fringe field perpendicular to the anode rotation axis can reduce anode rotation frequency. These effects can limit the maximum permissible power that can be safely dissipated on the anode track during a single exposure. In the fringe field strengths at the C-arm position (4-5 mT), anode rotation frequency only decreased by about 1%, which will have negligible impact on tube heat loadability. The fringe field can cause a field of view shift. The field of view shifted by approximately 3 mm, which can be corrected by active magnetic shielding and further collimation. An active magnetic shielding system was constructed that can correct focal spot deflection. These results are facilitating the construction of a prototype CBXMR system, the goal of which is to improve success rates for PAVR procedures.

Aortic stenosis is the most common acquired heart valve condition. Open-heart surgical aortic valve replacement is an effective treatment for patients who receive it. However, approximately one-third of patients who require this treatment do not receive it due to the risks associated with the surgery. Percutaneous aortic valve replacement (PAVR) is a minimally invasive technique that can replace the aortic valve of patients contraindicated for open-heart surgery. Although PAVR is now entering clinical practice, a closed bore hybrid x-ray/MRI (CBXMR) imaging system is under development to improve the safety and efficacy of PAVR. This system will harness the complementary strengths of x-ray imaging (surgical tool/vascular imaging) and MRI (cardiac soft tissue contrast) to deploy a bioprosthesis in the aortic annulus. An x-ray C-arm will be placed about 1 m from the entrance of the MRI scanner to facilitate smooth intermodality patient transfer during the procedure. The performance of a rotating-anode x-ray tube in the magnetic fringe field of a 1.5 T MRI scanner was investigated. A rotating-anode x-ray tube provides the fluoroscopy and angiography needed for PAVR. The magnetic fringe field can affect the ability of the x-ray tube to dissipate heat. It was shown that the fringe field perpendicular to the anode rotation axis can reduce anode rotation frequency. These effects can limit the maximum permissible power that can be safely dissipated on the anode track during a single exposure. In the fringe field strengths at the C-arm position (4-5 mT), anode rotation frequency only decreased by about 1%, which will have negligible impact on tube heat loadability. The fringe field can cause a field of view shift. The field of view shifted by approximately 3 mm, which can be corrected by active magnetic shielding and further collimation. An active magnetic shielding system was constructed that can correct focal spot deflection. These results are facilitating the construction of a prototype CBXMR system, the goal of which is to improve success rates for PAVR procedures.

O objetivo do presente trabalho foi a avaliação do envelhecimento de um tubo de raios X com anodo de tungstênio utilizado para aplicações de radiodiagnóstico, por meio de aplicação de cargas de acordo com distribuições de cargas de trabalho da realidade brasileira e avaliações periódicas de grandezas associadas à qualidade de radiação produzida. Para o propósito deste trabalho, um sistema clínico com retificação monofásica de onda completa foi utilizado. Para avaliação em longo prazo das características do tubo de raios X relacionadas à carga de trabalho foi necessária a medição de parâmetros que pudessem representar de forma quantitativa o envelhecimento do tubo de raios X, estando estes relacionados principalmente ao desgaste do anodo. Esta medição indireta do envelhecimento do tubo levou a escolha de quatro parâmetros, alguns deles normalmente empregados na prática de controle de qualidade de equipamentos de radiologia diagnóstica: primeira e segunda camada semi-redutora (CSR), dimensões dos pontos focais, medida não invasiva do Potencial de Pico Prático e espectrometria de raios X. Estes parâmetros foram medidos inicialmente e após cada aplicação de carga pertinente. Para garantir a confiabilidade dos resultados, condições de reprodutibilidade foram estabelecidas para cada parâmetro de avaliação. As incertezas envolvidas em todos os processos de medição foram calculadas para avaliação da real contribuição dos efeitos do envelhecimento do tubo de raios X nos parâmetros não invasivos. Dentre os parâmetros avaliados, os que mostraram maior sensibilidade aos efeitos da aplicação de carga em longo prazo foram as energias médias obtidas por meio de espectrometria de raios X e as camadas semi-redutoras. Um modelo relacionado a estes parâmetros foi aplicado e estimativas da taxa de envelhecimento do tubo de raios X para diferentes tensões de aceleração e correntes anódicas foram obtidas. / The objective of the present work was the evaluation of an x ray tube aging with an anode made of tungsten, used in radio diagnostic. Workloads were applied, in accordance with Brazilian workload distribution, and periodic measurements of quantities related to the radiation quality of the beam were performed. For the purpose of this work, a single phase, full bridge clinical system was employed. For the long term x ray tube characteristics evaluation related to the applied workload, it was necessary to measure parameters that could quantitatively represent the tube aging, with special attention to the anode roughening. For the indirect measurement of tube aging, four parameters were chosen, some of them normally applied in x ray diagnostic quality control: first and second half value layers (HVL), focal spot dimensions, non invasive measurement of Practical Peak Voltage (PPV) and x ray spectroscopy. These parameters were measured before any workload and after each workload intervals. To assure confidence of the results reproducibility conditions were stated to each evaluated parameter. The uncertainties involved in all measurement processes were calculated to evaluate the real contributions of x ray tube aging effects on non invasive parameters. Within all evaluated parameters, the most sensitive to long term workload were the mean energy obtained from spectroscopy and half value layers. A model related to these parameters was applied and estimates of x ray tube aging rate for different acceleration voltages and anodic currents were calculated.

Radiation from Computed Tomography (CT) is now the major contributor to population radiation dose. Despite controversy around the dose-effect relationship of radiation from CT, the linear non-threshold (LNT) theory is endorsed by many authorities, and constitutes the basis of cancer risk estimates. The purpose of this study was (1) a literature review of radiobiological theories, and methods of dose saving stategies in CT; (2) to highlight the importance of dose saving in CT, and to demonstrate how dose can be saved in a radiology department: Following a 40% reduction in reference X-ray tube current for a CT of the urinary tract, the effecitve dose and estimated lifetime attributable risk of incident cancer due to this CT in a group (n=103) were reduced by 37% and 38% in an age and sex-matched group respectively. The literature review showed that the public health implications of CT radiation exposure remain uncertain. / Health Studies / M.A. (Public Health)

A presente tese demonstra, a partir da avaliação convencional pelo método das Funções de Transferência de sistemas de imagem radiológica, que é necessário obter imagens de fenda em diversas orientações no campo para que essa análise tenha um significado mais real no caso de sistemas não isotrópicos. Isso provém da não linearidade na variação entre as FTMs obtidas para diversas direções 0 e 90&#176C relativas ao eixo do tubo de raios-X. Essa verificação, entretanto, representa um sério problema prático, pois indica um aumento no grau de complexidade de um método que, embora considerado o mais preciso pela maioria dos pesquisadores, tem sido utilizado apenas por laboratórios muito bem equipados. Assim, visando solucionar esse problema, esta tese propõe um novo método de simulação por computador que calcula a FEL e a FTM devidas ao ponto focal, dispensando, portanto, todo o complexo aparato experimental convencionalmente utilizado, o que contribui para tornar acessível à avaliação pelas funções de transferência a qualquer unidade radiológica. Por fim, faz parte desse trabalho também uma investigação do significado físico das variações registradas entre as FTMs e um estudo formal desenvolvido acerca dos conceitos da característica de campo e da magnificação lateral. / From the conventional evaluation by the radiological systems Transfer Functions, this work shows that it is necessary to obtain slit images at several field orientations so that this annalysis has a more real significance for non-isotropic systems. This is achieved from the non-linearity on the variations among the MTFs obtained in several directions between 0 and 90&#176C relative to the X-ray tube axis. This notification, however, represents a serious practical matter, because it shows an increase on the complexity of a method which has been used just by well structured laboratories, although many researchers have considered it the most accurate. Hence, in order to solve this problem, we present a new computer simulation method which calculates the LSF and the MTF due to the focal spot, without all the conventional complex experimental apparatus. This makes the evaluation by the transfer functions suitable to any radiological unit. Finally, it is also part of this work an investigation of the physical meaning of the variations among the MTFs and a formal study about the field characteristics and the lateral magnification concepts.

A presente tese demonstra, a partir da avaliação convencional pelo método das Funções de Transferência de sistemas de imagem radiológica, que é necessário obter imagens de fenda em diversas orientações no campo para que essa análise tenha um significado mais real no caso de sistemas não isotrópicos. Isso provém da não linearidade na variação entre as FTMs obtidas para diversas direções 0 e 90&#176C relativas ao eixo do tubo de raios-X. Essa verificação, entretanto, representa um sério problema prático, pois indica um aumento no grau de complexidade de um método que, embora considerado o mais preciso pela maioria dos pesquisadores, tem sido utilizado apenas por laboratórios muito bem equipados. Assim, visando solucionar esse problema, esta tese propõe um novo método de simulação por computador que calcula a FEL e a FTM devidas ao ponto focal, dispensando, portanto, todo o complexo aparato experimental convencionalmente utilizado, o que contribui para tornar acessível à avaliação pelas funções de transferência a qualquer unidade radiológica. Por fim, faz parte desse trabalho também uma investigação do significado físico das variações registradas entre as FTMs e um estudo formal desenvolvido acerca dos conceitos da característica de campo e da magnificação lateral. / From the conventional evaluation by the radiological systems Transfer Functions, this work shows that it is necessary to obtain slit images at several field orientations so that this annalysis has a more real significance for non-isotropic systems. This is achieved from the non-linearity on the variations among the MTFs obtained in several directions between 0 and 90&#176C relative to the X-ray tube axis. This notification, however, represents a serious practical matter, because it shows an increase on the complexity of a method which has been used just by well structured laboratories, although many researchers have considered it the most accurate. Hence, in order to solve this problem, we present a new computer simulation method which calculates the LSF and the MTF due to the focal spot, without all the conventional complex experimental apparatus. This makes the evaluation by the transfer functions suitable to any radiological unit. Finally, it is also part of this work an investigation of the physical meaning of the variations among the MTFs and a formal study about the field characteristics and the lateral magnification concepts.

Radiation from Computed Tomography (CT) is now the major contributor to population radiation dose. Despite controversy around the dose-effect relationship of radiation from CT, the linear non-threshold (LNT) theory is endorsed by many authorities, and constitutes the basis of cancer risk estimates. The purpose of this study was (1) a literature review of radiobiological theories, and methods of dose saving stategies in CT; (2) to highlight the importance of dose saving in CT, and to demonstrate how dose can be saved in a radiology department: Following a 40% reduction in reference X-ray tube current for a CT of the urinary tract, the effecitve dose and estimated lifetime attributable risk of incident cancer due to this CT in a group (n=103) were reduced by 37% and 38% in an age and sex-matched group respectively. The literature review showed that the public health implications of CT radiation exposure remain uncertain. / Health Studies / M.A. (Public Health)