Submitted by Jorge Silva (jorgelmsilva@ufrrj.br) on 2017-05-23T19:12:54Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2012 - Francisco L?cio da Silva Beltr?o.pdf: 1689416 bytes, checksum: 76a8c64f4a1c610912e18f6afdec5d8d (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-23T19:12:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2012 - Francisco L?cio da Silva Beltr?o.pdf: 1689416 bytes, checksum: 76a8c64f4a1c610912e18f6afdec5d8d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-08-29 / CAPES / The degradation of the wood occurs because of chemical, physical and biological factors, in the latter are the termites, which due to feed primarily on cellulose, which is a major constituent of the wood. In front of the potential damage of these insects to the timber, it is essential to study their attractiveness and feeding preferences to various wooden species, in order to better understand their habits and so to improve the prevention and control methods. This study aimed to analyze if wood of the five exotic forest species (Corymbia citriodora, Eucalyptus cloeziana, Eucalyptus saligna, Eucalyptus urograndis, and Pinus elliottii) is forage by termites throughout the time in three environments with different anthropic actions in the municipality of Seropedica, RJ; if there is preference of attack to wood of these species in this environmental and time conditions, and if the anthropization level influence the distribution of the termite species. Two areas were inside the campus of the Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro (monoculture of eucalypt and fragment of Mata Atlantica), and other in the Fazenda Agroecol?gica do Km 47 (area around the edification). Wooden stakes (2x2x25 cm) were made as test samples, which were buried on the ground at each experimental area, and evaluated at three times of exposition in the field (90, 120 and 150 days after the installation of the stakes), with eight replicates/forest specie/time. The initial weight and the wooden density of each stake were determined before they were set up in the field. To determine the points of termite activity in the areas, baits of cardboard carton were buried on the ground in order to attract the termites. The points where the baits present attack of termites served as central point for installation of the wooden stakes, which were disposed in a radial position, forming a circle of the stakes. After each exposure time the wooden stakes were collected and weighed to determine the feeding preference of the termites based on the consumption rate of the stakes. The obtained results showed the occurrence of three species of termites (a specie per area), an exotic: Coptotermes gestroi (Wasmann) (Rhinotermitidae), which occurs in the area around the edification, and two natives: Heterotermes tenuis (Hagen)(Rhinotermitidae), which was present at the eucalypt plantation, and Nasutitermes cf. itapocuensis (Holmgren) (Termitidae) which occurs in the forest. C. gestroi and H. tenuis showed more attractiveness/frequency of attack to wooden stakes of P. elliottii (83% and 63%, respectively), while N. cf. itapocuensis had highest occurrence/frequency of attack to E. cloeziana (79%). The average consumption rates of the stakes by C. gestroi and H. tenuis among the five forest species were similar. N. cf. itapocuensis showed sinficant feeding preference to E.cloeziana (4.32?1.19g) compared to P. elliottii (0.18?0.10g).It was observed that the low density of the wood influenced the occurrence/frequency of C. gestroi and H. tenuis to P. elliottii, while N. cf. itapocuensis was not influenced by this characteristic of the wood. However, there was no relationship between the feeding preferenceconsumption and the mean density of the wood to C. gestroi and H. tenuis, but N. cf. itapocuensis preferred woods of medium density. / A degrada??o da madeira ocorre devido a fatores qu?micos, f?sicos e/ou biol?gicos, neste ?ltimo se encontram os t?rmitas, por se alimentarem basicamente de celulose, que ? um dos principais constituintes da madeira. Diante do potencial de dano desses insetos ao madeiramento, ? imprescind?vel estudar a atratividade e a prefer?ncia alimentar destes ?s mais variadas esp?cies de madeira, para compreender melhor seus h?bitos e assim aperfei?oar os m?todos de preven??o e controle. Esse estudo objetivou analisar se madeira de cinco esp?cies florestais ex?ticas (Corymbia citriodora, Eucalyptus cloeziana, Eucalyptus saligna, Eucalyptus urograndis, e Pinus elliottii) ? forrageada por t?rmitas ao longo do tempo em tr?s ambientes com diferentes a??es antr?picas no munic?pio de Serop?dica, RJ; se h? prefer?ncia de ataque ?s madeiras dessas esp?cies nessas condi??es ambientais e de tempo, e se o n?vel de antropiza??o influencia a distribui??o das esp?cies de t?rmitas. Duas ?reas estavam dentro do campus da Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro (monocultivo de eucalipto e remanescente de Mata Atl?ntica), e outra na Fazenda Agroecol?gica do Km 47 (?rea ao redor de edifica??o). Foram confeccionadas estacas de madeira (2x2x25 cm) que serviram como corpos de prova, as quais foram enterradas no solo em cada ?rea experimental, sendo avaliadas em tr?s ?pocas de exposi??o a campo (90, 120 e 150 dias ap?s a instala??o das estacas), com oito repeti??es/esp?cie florestal/?poca. Foi aferido o peso inicial e a densidade da madeira de cada estaca antes de serem dispostas no campo. Para determinar pontos de atividade term?tica nas ?reas, foram enterradas no solo iscas de rolo de papel?o cartonado para atra??o dos t?rmitas. Os pontos onde as iscas apresentaram ataque de t?rmitas serviram como pontos centrais para a instala??o das estacas de madeira, que assumiram uma posi??o radial, formando um circulo de estacas. Ap?s cada ?poca de exposi??o, as estacas foram retiradas do campo e pesadas para determina??o prefer?ncia alimentar dos t?rmitas com base na taxa de consumo das estacas. Os resultados obtidos revelaram a ocorr?ncia de tr?s esp?cies de t?rmitas (uma esp?cie por ?rea), uma ex?tica: Coptotermes gestroi (Wasmann)(Rhinotermitidae), que ocorreu na ?rea ao redor de edifica??o, e duas nativas: Heterotermes tenuis (Hagen) (Rhinotermitidae), que estava presente no eucaliptal, e Nasutitermes cf. itapocuensis (Holmgren) (Termitidae) que ocorreu na floresta. C. gestroi e H. tenuis apresentaram uma maior atratividade/frequ?ncia de ataque para as estacas de P. elliottii (83%e 63%, respectivamente), enquanto N. cf. itapocuensis apresentou maior ocorr?ncia/frequ?ncia de ataque em E. cloeziana (79%). As taxas m?dias de consumo das estacas por C. gestroi e H. tenuis entre as cinco esp?cies florestais foram semelhantes. N. cf. itapocuensis revelou prefer?ncia alimentar significativa por E. cloeziana (4,32?1,19g) em rela??o a de P. elliottii (0,18?0,10g). Observou-se que a baixa densidade da madeira influenciou a ocorr?ncia/frequ?ncia de ataque de C. gestroi e H. tenuis por P. elliottii, enquanto N. cf. itapocuensis n?o foi influenciado por essa caracter?stica da madeira. Entretanto, n?o houve rela??o entre a prefer?ncia alimentar/consumo e a densidade m?dia da madeira para C. gestroi e H. tenuis, j? N. cf. itapocuensis preferiu madeiras de m?dia densidade.

This pilot study was conducted to test if there are differences in occurrence of red-listed xylophagous fungi in forests dependent on degrees of human impact on the forests. Three main degrees of human impact was investigated: little impact (natural forest); medium impact (semi-natural forest) and high impact (monoculture plantation). These forests were compared in three geographically distinct areas within the same municipality, Vindeln. Within each forest type, three experimental plots were randomly selected, resulting in a total of 27 research plots. The study was conducted in northern Sweden, Västerbotten county in the following locations: Svartberget, Skatan and Kulbäcksliden. The pilot study found significant differences between natural forests and monoculture plantations. The natural forests harboured the most red-listed species, followed by the semi-natural forests, while the monoculture plantations had the fewest. The semi-natural was closer to the natural forest but did not yield significant differences when comparing the various areas. Despite the small dataset, the results are clear that the natural forests harbour the highest abundance of red-listed xylophagous fungi when comparing the degree of human impact in three different forest ecosystems.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The process of the thermal modification on wood is the application of heat in order to improve its quality. The objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of the thermal modification in industrial scale on the wood quality of Tectona grandis Linn. F. To this end, boards of approximately 35 x 100 x 2200 mm (thickness, width and length), separated and numbered in quality classes. First-class boards were with the highest presence of core and free of defects, such as cracks, knots, warps, among others, while the second class boards presented larger portions of sapwood and defects mentioned above. In this way, four batches of wood were separated into four treatments, with T1 and T2 being the natural wood of the first and second quality respectively, and in the same order of quality, however, the T3 and T4 treatments were thermally modified. The original pieces of 2200 mm length were divided into two pieces of equal size (1100 mm), one of them corresponding to the wood control (T1 and T2), that is, the non-thermally modified, for later comparison with the treated wood (T3 and T4). The VAP HolzSysteme® thermal modification was conducted according to the program used by the company, where the final temperature was 160 ° C. After the heat treatment, the wood was tested by the quantification of defects; Effect on chemical composition; In the physical and mechanical properties, and, finally, of the resistance to xylophagous fungi. The defects were analyzed by the standard NBR 9487 (ABNT, 1986) through cracks (top and surface) and warping (bending, bending and recessing). In addition, the moisture content was also measured. The chemical analyzes followed the methodologies described in the Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry - TAPPI (Tappi, 1999), through the analysis of total extractives, lignin Klason, holocellulose, hemicellulose and alpha cellulose. For the physical tests (equilibrium moisture content, apparent specific mass, total swelling and swelling anisotropy), the procedures established in ASTM D 143-94 (ASTM, 2000) were used. Colorimetry followed ASTM D 2244-09a (ASTM, 2009). The test of static flexion and parallel compression of the fibers followed the standard ASTM D 143-94 (ASTM, 2000). The test of shear strength in parallel compression to the fibers in the glue line was according to ASTM D - 905 (ASTM, 2008a) and the percentage of failure of the specimens, followed the standard ASTM D - 3110 (ASTM, 2008 b). The assembly of the biological analyzes followed the recommendation of the European norm EN 113 (1996). The fungus used was Ganoderma applanatum (white rot) and the resistance was evaluated by the ASTM D 2017 standard. The heat treatment influenced the increase of the moisture content, but this did not interfere with the quality of the wood. The quality of the thermal modification was satisfactory, if evaluated by the defects of cracks and warpage. In addition, the quality of the wood was paramount for the lowest defect rate. The content of extractive and alpha cellulose increased significantly with thermal modification, in contrast, holocellulose and hemicellulose reduced, and still, for the latter, the quality of the wood may have influenced. The Klason lignin content was not significantly altered by temperature or by the quality of the wood. The equilibrium moisture content, apparent specific mass of the wood, total swelling and anisotropy of wood swelling decreased after heat treatment, due to loss of hemicellulose mass and increase of total extractives. Therefore, the dimensional stability of the wood has been increased. The colorimetry was influenced by the thermal modification of the wood, through the darkening and increase of the reddish hue. The quality of the wood did not influence the physical properties, except the colorimetry, which was altered by the difference in the proportion of the sapwood and core of the specimens. The failures in the wood caused by the shear strength in the glue line were satisfactory. The mechanical strength of all tests was reduced by the quality of the wood and the thermal modification, which in the latter case caused hemicellulose degradation. The wood was considered very resistant, although the loss of mass in contact with the fungus increased in the thermally treated wood. The results may have been influenced by the quality of the wood and the degradation of the hemicelluose. It was concluded that, in general, the effect of the thermal modification on the quality of the wood was significant in all evaluated properties (chemical, physical, mechanical and biological), and the presence of heartwood, sapwood had little influence. The main responsible for the changes in the wood after the thermal modification was the degradation of hemicellulose. / O processo da modificação térmica da madeira é a aplicação de calor a fim de melhorar a sua qualidade. O objetivo dessa pesquisa foi avaliar o efeito da modificação térmica em escala industrial na qualidade da madeira de Tectona grandis Linn. F. Para isso, foram utilizadas tábuas de aproximadamente 35 x 100 x 2200 mm (espessura, largura e comprimento), separadas e numeradas em classes de qualidade. As tábuas de primeira classe foram aquelas com a maior presença de cerne e livres de defeitos, tais como rachaduras, nós, empenamentos, dentre outros, ao passo que as de segunda classe apresentaram porções maiores de alburno e os defeitos citados anteriormente. Desta forma, foram separados quatro lotes de madeira, em quatro tratamentos sendo o T1 e T2 para a madeira natural de primeira e segunda qualidade respectivamente e, na mesma ordem de qualidade, entretanto modificadas termicamente os tratamentos T3 e T4. As peças originalmente de 2200 mm de comprimento dividiram-se em duas peças de iguais dimensões (1100 mm), sendo uma delas correspondendo à madeira testemunha (T1 e T2), ou seja, a não modificada termicamente, para posterior comparação com a tratada (T3 e T4). A modificação térmica VAP HolzSysteme® foi conduzida de acordo com o programa utilizado pela empresa, em que a temperatura final foi de 160ºC. Posteriormente ao tratamento térmico, a madeira foi testada pelo efeito na composição química; nas propriedades físicas e mecânicas e, por fim, na resistência aos fungos xilófagos. As análises químicas seguiram as metodologias descritas nas normas Technical Association of pulp and Paper Industry - TAPPI (Tappi, 1999), onde foi determinado os teores de extrativos totais, de lignina Klason, de holocelulose, de hemicelulose e de alfa celulose. Para a realização dos ensaios físicos (teor de umidade de equilíbrio, massa específica aparente, inchamento total e anisotropia de inchamento) foram utilizados os procedimentos estabelecidos na norma ASTM D 143-94 (ASTM, 2000). A colorimetria seguiu a norma ASTM D 2244-09a (ASTM, 2009). O teste de flexão estática e compressão paralela as fibras seguiram a norma ASTM D 143-94 (ASTM, 2000). O teste de resistência ao cisalhamento na compressão paralela às fibras na linha de cola foi conforme a norma ASTM D - 905 (ASTM, 2008a) e o percentual de falhas dos corpos de prova, seguiu a norma ASTM D - 3110 (ASTM, 2008 b). A montagem das análises biológicas seguiu a recomendação da norma Europeia EN 113 (1996). O fungo utilizado foi o Ganoderma applanatum (podridão-branca) e a resistência foi avaliada pela norma ASTM D 2017. O teor de extrativos e alfa celulose aumentaram significativamente com a modificação térmica, em contrapartida, a holocelulose e hemicelulose reduziram, e ainda, para esse último, a qualidade da madeira pode ter influenciado. O teor de lignina Klason não foi alterado significativamente pela temperatura e pela qualidade da madeira. O teor de umidade de equilíbrio, a massa específica aparente, o inchamento total e anisotropia de inchamento da madeira diminuíram após o tratamento térmico, devido à perda de massa da hemicelulose e aumento dos extrativos totais. Por conseguinte, elevou-se a estabilidade dimensional da madeira. A colorimetria foi influenciada pela modificação térmica da madeira, por meio do escurecimento e aumento da tonalidade avermelhada. A qualidade da madeira não influenciou nas propriedades físicas, exceto a colorimetria, que foi alterada pela diferença de proporção do alburno e cerne dos corpos de prova. As falhas na madeira causada na resistência do cisalhamento na linha de cola foram satisfatórias. A resistência mecânica de todos os testes foi reduzida pela qualidade da madeira e a modificação térmica, que neste último caso, causou a degradação da hemicelulose. A madeira foi considerada muito resistente, apesar da perda de massa em contato com o fungo ter aumentado na madeira tratada termicamente. Os resultados podem ter sido influenciados pela qualidade da madeira e a degradação da hemiceluose. Conclui-se que de maneira geral, o efeito da modificação térmica na qualidade da madeira foi significativo em todas as propriedades avaliadas (químicas, físicas, mecânicas e biológicas), sendo que, a presença de cerne, alburno tiveram pouca influência. A principal responsável pelas mudanças na madeira após a modificação térmica foi a degradação da hemicelulose.

During the last century the forests of Central Europe changed from open woodlands to even-aged stands with closed-canopy. This change resulted in severe decline of forest biodiversity. This study examines how, and why such change affected xylophagous insects. I have studied microhabitat preferences, i.e. distribution of xylophagous insects in canopy and understorey of closed forests, forest edges and wooded meadows. I used method of rearing insect from timber baits exposed to ovipositing females of xylophagous insects in different situations in the forest at the beginning if vegetation season. After one season of exposition,the baits were collected enclosed in fly-wire cages, where emerging insects were collected for two seasons. This thesis consists of two parts: The first part is an unpublished manuscript dealing with effect of habitat insolation, vertical stratification, forest structure and amount of dead wood on community of long-horned beetles (Cerambycidae) and jewell beetles (Buprestidae) feeding on wood of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur). Baits were exposed in the canopy and the understorey of forest interior, the canopy and the understorey of forest edge and on solitary trees on wooded meadows. Most insect species do prefer insoled wood for their development, and were more common in the understorey than in the canopy. Insolation of bait was thus the prime factor affecting composition of reared insects. No relation was found between dead wood volume and species composition or abundance of reared insects This shows that insolation of the dead wood is crucial to conservation of most xylophagous insects. The second part of the thesis studies effect of vertical stratification and insolation on distribution of xylophages feeding reared from wood of 8 tree species (Alnus glutinosa, Populus alba, P. x canadensis, Salix alba, Carpinus betulus, Quercus robur, Tilia cordata, Ulmus laevis) and host specificity of xylophages. Results show that: (i) community composition of xylophages reflects evolutionary history of their host plants; (ii) communities reared from different trees exhibit different preferences for forest strata and insolation of the habitat, probably in connection to preferred growth conditions of the host plant, (iii) many xylophagous insect species exhibit strong preferences to insoled habitats, and are thus confined to forest edges in extensively managed forests as well as in unmanaged forest reserves.

O fungo Pleurotus ostreatus pertence ao grupo de basidiomicetos que degradam madeira. Este cogumelo cultivado em todo mundo apresenta grande rusticidade e produtividade, e pode ainda ser usado em processos de biorremediação e biopolpação. Devido a seu potencial biotecnológico, torna-se interessante a compreensão da interação deste com outros microrganismos. Neste sentido, recentemente foi observada a presença de bactérias associadas a P. ostreatus em culturas in vitro, que apresentavam grande pleomorfismo. A partir desta observação foram elaborados ensaios que visaram a confirmação da presença de bactérias. Para tanto, foi utilizada a estratégia do "Ciclo Completo de Análise do rRNA" (full-cycle rRNA analysis) empregada em microrganismos não cultiváveis ou de crescimento fastidioso, além do emprego de técnicas de microbiologia básica, e de estudos de ultraestrutura. Os estudos de microbiologia básica indicaram que se tratava de um microrganismo fastidioso e que se desenvolvia melhor na presença do fungo em sistema de co-cultivo em meios contendo Tween 80 ou Tween 20. Por sua vez, a análise de ultraestrutura demonstrou a presença de estruturas pleomórficas, tanto internamente como externamente à hifa. Em relação ao "Ciclo completo de Análise do rRNA" este se iniciou pela amplificação e seqüenciamento de parte do rDNA bacteriano, que revelou a proximidade desta bactéria com o Complexo Burkholderia cepacia (CBC). A partir desta seqüência, foi realizado um estudo de bioinformática que indicou sondas específicas para este grupo de bactérias. Completando o Ciclo completo de Análise do rRNA, foram realizados ensaios de hibridização in situ fluorescente (FISH) para a confirmar a relação entre as estruturas bacterianas e a seqüência obtida. Este método comprovou a presença das bactérias no interior das hifas de P. ostreatus. Este trabalho constitui o primeiro relato de bactérias pleomórficas pertencente ao complexo B. cepacia associados a P. ostreatus. / The fungus Pleurotus ostreatus, which belongs to white rot basidiomycete group, is a widely cultivated mushroom; this species has high productivity and rusticity, besides its use in biobleaching and bioremediation processes. This biotechnological potential justifies microbial interaction studies between this fungi and others microorganisms. In P. ostreatus mycelia, it has been observed pleomorphic bacteria growing on agar media. This research describes several assays to confirm bacterial presence in this sample. Therefore, the full-cycle rRNA analysis (described for unculturable or fastidious microorganism), ultrastructure and basic microbiology approaches were employed. Basic microbiology approaches indicated slow growing bacteria, which grown faster near to fungi colonies in solid media amended with Tween 80 or Tween 20 (co-culture system). Ultrastructure studies confirm the presence of intracellular and extracellular pleomorphic bacteria. The full-cycle rRNA analysis started with 16S rDNA amplification and sequencing. This approach demonstrated a relation between these bacteria with Burkholderia cepacia complex. By bioinformatics analysis was determinate which DNA probes can be use to identified this bacterial group. The last step for full-cycle rRNA analysis was applying fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). This technique confirmed the relationship between 16S rDNA bacterial sequence and bacterial forms. This is the first time that a pleomorphic bacteria from B. cepacia complex is found associated with P. ostreatus.

Xylophagous borers and termites that damage "timber-in-service" cause millions of dollars loss annually throughout mainland Australia. I developed field-based feeding assays with practical relevance to preventative action and remedial treatment of infestations of xylophagous insects in the built environment. Essential to this work is facilitating a high termite risk by maintaining an environment conducive to sustained foraging by termites. Feeding assays conducted in low termite risk areas are unduly prolonged, with inherently erratic termite feeding responses. I successfully developed feeding assays with a high termite risk. To establish whether a physical barrier, retrofitted as a sleeve, could prevent termites from damaging wooden poles, eighty poles were established within Beerburrum State Forest, south-east Queensland, Australia. Poles within sets were interconnected with buried timber to facilitate a high risk to Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt). Mesh sleeves to a depth of 1.5m did not prevent termite damage to the poles. Hoop pine Araucaria cunninghamii Ait. ex D.Don dowels ("dip-sticks") were useful termite monitoring devices on the poles. The depth of foraging by termites has implications for the effectiveness of retrofitted physical and chemical barriers in general. Timber quantity and quality has a pivotal influence on the aggregation of large numbers of feeding termites necessary for baiting work and for producing efficacy data of relevance to the protection of timber-in-service from termites. Seasonal variation in termite foraging was examined. Both C. acinaciformis and Coptotermes lacteus (Froggatt) were more active feeding in summer than in autumn. In general, mass loss followed mean ambient temperature. Suppression of C. acinaciformis feeding responses relative to C. lacteus during summer, particularly during January, is thought to be due to excessive temperatures in the containers attached to infested trees. Termite foraging behaviour and responses to both varying masses of softwood timbers and varying exposure times were investigated. The rate of mass loss was independent of the number of test specimens and appeared linear. Colonies regulate the number of foragers directly according to the mass of susceptible timber available. This phenomenon was exploited throughout the remainder of the thesis. Of particular significance was the considerable intra- and inter-specific variation in susceptibility of softwoods to C. acinaciformis and Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt. The sapwoods tested were susceptible, but the heartwoods were generally resistant to damage by termites. These data confirm that termites are discriminating feeders, and some more so than others. A novel methodology, developed to maintain an environment conducive to sustained foraging by termites during field-testing, is presented. Consistency in timber acceptance and susceptibility to termites is considered to be important in determining the frequency of inspection and the success of bait systems. I evaluate the termiticidal activity of the bait toxicants hexaflumuron and chlorfluazuron for the management of the subterranean termite C. acinaciformis in the field. The Sentricon Colony Elimination System with Baitube-devices containing 0.1% and 1% mass/mass (m/m) hexaflumuron bait toxicant in dry wood flour (Recruit) was successful in eliminating field colonies of C. acinaciformis. Similarly, the Exterra Termite Interception and Baiting System with cellulose-acetate powder containing either 0.05% m/m or 0.25% m/m chlorfluazuron (Requiem) eliminated C. acinaciformis. Indicators (including "dip-sticks") used to monitor colony health were reliable. By using C. acinaciformis, which builds mounds (epigeous nests) in northern Australia, I was able to avoid the use of multiple mark-release schemes to verify the effects of the bait toxicant on the termite colonies. Problems with multiple mark-release schemes, used elsewhere in the world, are discussed. I continued the focus on bait quality and placement by evaluating termite responses to two aspects of treated stakes, their attractiveness and their susceptibility. Three experiments were undertaken near Townsville and at Beerburrum, with Coptotermes and Schedorhinotermes. Whilst there were no significant differences in the rate of location and foraging, with respect to treatments, differences in foraging, with respect to C. acinaciformis and Schedorhinotermes seclusus (Hill) were significant. Coptotermes acinaciformis displayed greater foraging site tenacity than S. seclusus at Beerburrum. Increased consumption of bait, due to the addition of a phagostimulant, needs to be observed in the field before an increase in the efficacy of baits in a termite management program can be claimed. In Australia, softwood timbers are extensively used in building construction and are generally highly susceptible to damage by termites. I focussed on field feeding assays to test efficacy of borate-treated softwoods against termites and to define "adequate" protection thresholds. Laboratory and field data reported in the literature were confusing with regard to what constitutes "adequate" protection thresholds. The confusion was compounded by differences in termite species, timber species used and test methodology. Laboratory data indicated a borate loading of 0.5% m/m boric acid equivalent (BAE) would cause > 90% termite mortality and restrict mass loss in test specimens to 5%. Field data generally suggested that borate loadings in excess of 0.5% m/m BAE were required. The main contribution of the work to increasing our understanding of management options for termites in the built environment was in resolving the confusion between laboratory and field data for borate wood-preservatives. These apparently conflicting results were explained by the presence or absence of untreated feeder material in the test environment. In the absence of untreated feeder material, retention of 0.5% BAE provides adequate protection from Coptotermes sp., whereas in the presence of untreated feeder material, increased retentions are required. Furthermore, the retentions required increase with increased amounts of susceptible material. Some termites, Nasutitermes sp. and M. darwiniensis, for example, are borate-tolerant and borate wood-preservatives are not a viable management option. The lack of uniform standards for termite-test methodology and assessment criteria for efficacy across the world is recognized as a difficulty with research into the performance of wood preservatives with termites. The many variables in laboratory and field assays make "prescriptive" standards difficult to recommend. The use of "performance" standards to define efficacy criteria ("adequate" protection) is discussed. Whilst the majority of the work involves subterranean termites ("termites"), I examine the question of how to define a hardwood timber species as "not susceptible" to lyctine beetle damage. Aspects of the biology, behaviour and management of Lyctus brunneus (Stephens) are reviewed and a novel field sampling and testing protocol to establish lyctine susceptibility of timber species is presented. A sound understanding of the biology and behaviour of xylophagous insects in the field is essential to ensure that management options implemented in the built environment have a strong ecological basis. The success of this study in achieving stated aims, the need for further work and the implications for test methodologies in the field with practical relevance to infestations of xylophagous insects in the built environment are discussed.

Xylophagous borers and termites that damage "timber-in-service" cause millions of dollars loss annually throughout mainland Australia. I developed field-based feeding assays with practical relevance to preventative action and remedial treatment of infestations of xylophagous insects in the built environment. Essential to this work is facilitating a high termite risk by maintaining an environment conducive to sustained foraging by termites. Feeding assays conducted in low termite risk areas are unduly prolonged, with inherently erratic termite feeding responses. I successfully developed feeding assays with a high termite risk. To establish whether a physical barrier, retrofitted as a sleeve, could prevent termites from damaging wooden poles, eighty poles were established within Beerburrum State Forest, south-east Queensland, Australia. Poles within sets were interconnected with buried timber to facilitate a high risk to Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt). Mesh sleeves to a depth of 1.5m did not prevent termite damage to the poles. Hoop pine Araucaria cunninghamii Ait. ex D.Don dowels ("dip-sticks") were useful termite monitoring devices on the poles. The depth of foraging by termites has implications for the effectiveness of retrofitted physical and chemical barriers in general. Timber quantity and quality has a pivotal influence on the aggregation of large numbers of feeding termites necessary for baiting work and for producing efficacy data of relevance to the protection of timber-in-service from termites. Seasonal variation in termite foraging was examined. Both C. acinaciformis and Coptotermes lacteus (Froggatt) were more active feeding in summer than in autumn. In general, mass loss followed mean ambient temperature. Suppression of C. acinaciformis feeding responses relative to C. lacteus during summer, particularly during January, is thought to be due to excessive temperatures in the containers attached to infested trees. Termite foraging behaviour and responses to both varying masses of softwood timbers and varying exposure times were investigated. The rate of mass loss was independent of the number of test specimens and appeared linear. Colonies regulate the number of foragers directly according to the mass of susceptible timber available. This phenomenon was exploited throughout the remainder of the thesis. Of particular significance was the considerable intra- and inter-specific variation in susceptibility of softwoods to C. acinaciformis and Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt. The sapwoods tested were susceptible, but the heartwoods were generally resistant to damage by termites. These data confirm that termites are discriminating feeders, and some more so than others. A novel methodology, developed to maintain an environment conducive to sustained foraging by termites during field-testing, is presented. Consistency in timber acceptance and susceptibility to termites is considered to be important in determining the frequency of inspection and the success of bait systems. I evaluate the termiticidal activity of the bait toxicants hexaflumuron and chlorfluazuron for the management of the subterranean termite C. acinaciformis in the field. The Sentricon Colony Elimination System with Baitube-devices containing 0.1% and 1% mass/mass (m/m) hexaflumuron bait toxicant in dry wood flour (Recruit) was successful in eliminating field colonies of C. acinaciformis. Similarly, the Exterra Termite Interception and Baiting System with cellulose-acetate powder containing either 0.05% m/m or 0.25% m/m chlorfluazuron (Requiem) eliminated C. acinaciformis. Indicators (including "dip-sticks") used to monitor colony health were reliable. By using C. acinaciformis, which builds mounds (epigeous nests) in northern Australia, I was able to avoid the use of multiple mark-release schemes to verify the effects of the bait toxicant on the termite colonies. Problems with multiple mark-release schemes, used elsewhere in the world, are discussed. I continued the focus on bait quality and placement by evaluating termite responses to two aspects of treated stakes, their attractiveness and their susceptibility. Three experiments were undertaken near Townsville and at Beerburrum, with Coptotermes and Schedorhinotermes. Whilst there were no significant differences in the rate of location and foraging, with respect to treatments, differences in foraging, with respect to C. acinaciformis and Schedorhinotermes seclusus (Hill) were significant. Coptotermes acinaciformis displayed greater foraging site tenacity than S. seclusus at Beerburrum. Increased consumption of bait, due to the addition of a phagostimulant, needs to be observed in the field before an increase in the efficacy of baits in a termite management program can be claimed. In Australia, softwood timbers are extensively used in building construction and are generally highly susceptible to damage by termites. I focussed on field feeding assays to test efficacy of borate-treated softwoods against termites and to define "adequate" protection thresholds. Laboratory and field data reported in the literature were confusing with regard to what constitutes "adequate" protection thresholds. The confusion was compounded by differences in termite species, timber species used and test methodology. Laboratory data indicated a borate loading of 0.5% m/m boric acid equivalent (BAE) would cause > 90% termite mortality and restrict mass loss in test specimens to 5%. Field data generally suggested that borate loadings in excess of 0.5% m/m BAE were required. The main contribution of the work to increasing our understanding of management options for termites in the built environment was in resolving the confusion between laboratory and field data for borate wood-preservatives. These apparently conflicting results were explained by the presence or absence of untreated feeder material in the test environment. In the absence of untreated feeder material, retention of 0.5% BAE provides adequate protection from Coptotermes sp., whereas in the presence of untreated feeder material, increased retentions are required. Furthermore, the retentions required increase with increased amounts of susceptible material. Some termites, Nasutitermes sp. and M. darwiniensis, for example, are borate-tolerant and borate wood-preservatives are not a viable management option. The lack of uniform standards for termite-test methodology and assessment criteria for efficacy across the world is recognized as a difficulty with research into the performance of wood preservatives with termites. The many variables in laboratory and field assays make "prescriptive" standards difficult to recommend. The use of "performance" standards to define efficacy criteria ("adequate" protection) is discussed. Whilst the majority of the work involves subterranean termites ("termites"), I examine the question of how to define a hardwood timber species as "not susceptible" to lyctine beetle damage. Aspects of the biology, behaviour and management of Lyctus brunneus (Stephens) are reviewed and a novel field sampling and testing protocol to establish lyctine susceptibility of timber species is presented. A sound understanding of the biology and behaviour of xylophagous insects in the field is essential to ensure that management options implemented in the built environment have a strong ecological basis. The success of this study in achieving stated aims, the need for further work and the implications for test methodologies in the field with practical relevance to infestations of xylophagous insects in the built environment are discussed.

Xylophagous borers and termites that damage "timber-in-service" cause millions of dollars loss annually throughout mainland Australia. I developed field-based feeding assays with practical relevance to preventative action and remedial treatment of infestations of xylophagous insects in the built environment. Essential to this work is facilitating a high termite risk by maintaining an environment conducive to sustained foraging by termites. Feeding assays conducted in low termite risk areas are unduly prolonged, with inherently erratic termite feeding responses. I successfully developed feeding assays with a high termite risk. To establish whether a physical barrier, retrofitted as a sleeve, could prevent termites from damaging wooden poles, eighty poles were established within Beerburrum State Forest, south-east Queensland, Australia. Poles within sets were interconnected with buried timber to facilitate a high risk to Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt). Mesh sleeves to a depth of 1.5m did not prevent termite damage to the poles. Hoop pine Araucaria cunninghamii Ait. ex D.Don dowels ("dip-sticks") were useful termite monitoring devices on the poles. The depth of foraging by termites has implications for the effectiveness of retrofitted physical and chemical barriers in general. Timber quantity and quality has a pivotal influence on the aggregation of large numbers of feeding termites necessary for baiting work and for producing efficacy data of relevance to the protection of timber-in-service from termites. Seasonal variation in termite foraging was examined. Both C. acinaciformis and Coptotermes lacteus (Froggatt) were more active feeding in summer than in autumn. In general, mass loss followed mean ambient temperature. Suppression of C. acinaciformis feeding responses relative to C. lacteus during summer, particularly during January, is thought to be due to excessive temperatures in the containers attached to infested trees. Termite foraging behaviour and responses to both varying masses of softwood timbers and varying exposure times were investigated. The rate of mass loss was independent of the number of test specimens and appeared linear. Colonies regulate the number of foragers directly according to the mass of susceptible timber available. This phenomenon was exploited throughout the remainder of the thesis. Of particular significance was the considerable intra- and inter-specific variation in susceptibility of softwoods to C. acinaciformis and Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt. The sapwoods tested were susceptible, but the heartwoods were generally resistant to damage by termites. These data confirm that termites are discriminating feeders, and some more so than others. A novel methodology, developed to maintain an environment conducive to sustained foraging by termites during field-testing, is presented. Consistency in timber acceptance and susceptibility to termites is considered to be important in determining the frequency of inspection and the success of bait systems. I evaluate the termiticidal activity of the bait toxicants hexaflumuron and chlorfluazuron for the management of the subterranean termite C. acinaciformis in the field. The Sentricon Colony Elimination System with Baitube-devices containing 0.1% and 1% mass/mass (m/m) hexaflumuron bait toxicant in dry wood flour (Recruit) was successful in eliminating field colonies of C. acinaciformis. Similarly, the Exterra Termite Interception and Baiting System with cellulose-acetate powder containing either 0.05% m/m or 0.25% m/m chlorfluazuron (Requiem) eliminated C. acinaciformis. Indicators (including "dip-sticks") used to monitor colony health were reliable. By using C. acinaciformis, which builds mounds (epigeous nests) in northern Australia, I was able to avoid the use of multiple mark-release schemes to verify the effects of the bait toxicant on the termite colonies. Problems with multiple mark-release schemes, used elsewhere in the world, are discussed. I continued the focus on bait quality and placement by evaluating termite responses to two aspects of treated stakes, their attractiveness and their susceptibility. Three experiments were undertaken near Townsville and at Beerburrum, with Coptotermes and Schedorhinotermes. Whilst there were no significant differences in the rate of location and foraging, with respect to treatments, differences in foraging, with respect to C. acinaciformis and Schedorhinotermes seclusus (Hill) were significant. Coptotermes acinaciformis displayed greater foraging site tenacity than S. seclusus at Beerburrum. Increased consumption of bait, due to the addition of a phagostimulant, needs to be observed in the field before an increase in the efficacy of baits in a termite management program can be claimed. In Australia, softwood timbers are extensively used in building construction and are generally highly susceptible to damage by termites. I focussed on field feeding assays to test efficacy of borate-treated softwoods against termites and to define "adequate" protection thresholds. Laboratory and field data reported in the literature were confusing with regard to what constitutes "adequate" protection thresholds. The confusion was compounded by differences in termite species, timber species used and test methodology. Laboratory data indicated a borate loading of 0.5% m/m boric acid equivalent (BAE) would cause > 90% termite mortality and restrict mass loss in test specimens to 5%. Field data generally suggested that borate loadings in excess of 0.5% m/m BAE were required. The main contribution of the work to increasing our understanding of management options for termites in the built environment was in resolving the confusion between laboratory and field data for borate wood-preservatives. These apparently conflicting results were explained by the presence or absence of untreated feeder material in the test environment. In the absence of untreated feeder material, retention of 0.5% BAE provides adequate protection from Coptotermes sp., whereas in the presence of untreated feeder material, increased retentions are required. Furthermore, the retentions required increase with increased amounts of susceptible material. Some termites, Nasutitermes sp. and M. darwiniensis, for example, are borate-tolerant and borate wood-preservatives are not a viable management option. The lack of uniform standards for termite-test methodology and assessment criteria for efficacy across the world is recognized as a difficulty with research into the performance of wood preservatives with termites. The many variables in laboratory and field assays make "prescriptive" standards difficult to recommend. The use of "performance" standards to define efficacy criteria ("adequate" protection) is discussed. Whilst the majority of the work involves subterranean termites ("termites"), I examine the question of how to define a hardwood timber species as "not susceptible" to lyctine beetle damage. Aspects of the biology, behaviour and management of Lyctus brunneus (Stephens) are reviewed and a novel field sampling and testing protocol to establish lyctine susceptibility of timber species is presented. A sound understanding of the biology and behaviour of xylophagous insects in the field is essential to ensure that management options implemented in the built environment have a strong ecological basis. The success of this study in achieving stated aims, the need for further work and the implications for test methodologies in the field with practical relevance to infestations of xylophagous insects in the built environment are discussed.

Xylophagous borers and termites that damage "timber-in-service" cause millions of dollars loss annually throughout mainland Australia. I developed field-based feeding assays with practical relevance to preventative action and remedial treatment of infestations of xylophagous insects in the built environment. Essential to this work is facilitating a high termite risk by maintaining an environment conducive to sustained foraging by termites. Feeding assays conducted in low termite risk areas are unduly prolonged, with inherently erratic termite feeding responses. I successfully developed feeding assays with a high termite risk. To establish whether a physical barrier, retrofitted as a sleeve, could prevent termites from damaging wooden poles, eighty poles were established within Beerburrum State Forest, south-east Queensland, Australia. Poles within sets were interconnected with buried timber to facilitate a high risk to Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt). Mesh sleeves to a depth of 1.5m did not prevent termite damage to the poles. Hoop pine Araucaria cunninghamii Ait. ex D.Don dowels ("dip-sticks") were useful termite monitoring devices on the poles. The depth of foraging by termites has implications for the effectiveness of retrofitted physical and chemical barriers in general. Timber quantity and quality has a pivotal influence on the aggregation of large numbers of feeding termites necessary for baiting work and for producing efficacy data of relevance to the protection of timber-in-service from termites. Seasonal variation in termite foraging was examined. Both C. acinaciformis and Coptotermes lacteus (Froggatt) were more active feeding in summer than in autumn. In general, mass loss followed mean ambient temperature. Suppression of C. acinaciformis feeding responses relative to C. lacteus during summer, particularly during January, is thought to be due to excessive temperatures in the containers attached to infested trees. Termite foraging behaviour and responses to both varying masses of softwood timbers and varying exposure times were investigated. The rate of mass loss was independent of the number of test specimens and appeared linear. Colonies regulate the number of foragers directly according to the mass of susceptible timber available. This phenomenon was exploited throughout the remainder of the thesis. Of particular significance was the considerable intra- and inter-specific variation in susceptibility of softwoods to C. acinaciformis and Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt. The sapwoods tested were susceptible, but the heartwoods were generally resistant to damage by termites. These data confirm that termites are discriminating feeders, and some more so than others. A novel methodology, developed to maintain an environment conducive to sustained foraging by termites during field-testing, is presented. Consistency in timber acceptance and susceptibility to termites is considered to be important in determining the frequency of inspection and the success of bait systems. I evaluate the termiticidal activity of the bait toxicants hexaflumuron and chlorfluazuron for the management of the subterranean termite C. acinaciformis in the field. The Sentricon Colony Elimination System with Baitube-devices containing 0.1% and 1% mass/mass (m/m) hexaflumuron bait toxicant in dry wood flour (Recruit) was successful in eliminating field colonies of C. acinaciformis. Similarly, the Exterra Termite Interception and Baiting System with cellulose-acetate powder containing either 0.05% m/m or 0.25% m/m chlorfluazuron (Requiem) eliminated C. acinaciformis. Indicators (including "dip-sticks") used to monitor colony health were reliable. By using C. acinaciformis, which builds mounds (epigeous nests) in northern Australia, I was able to avoid the use of multiple mark-release schemes to verify the effects of the bait toxicant on the termite colonies. Problems with multiple mark-release schemes, used elsewhere in the world, are discussed. I continued the focus on bait quality and placement by evaluating termite responses to two aspects of treated stakes, their attractiveness and their susceptibility. Three experiments were undertaken near Townsville and at Beerburrum, with Coptotermes and Schedorhinotermes. Whilst there were no significant differences in the rate of location and foraging, with respect to treatments, differences in foraging, with respect to C. acinaciformis and Schedorhinotermes seclusus (Hill) were significant. Coptotermes acinaciformis displayed greater foraging site tenacity than S. seclusus at Beerburrum. Increased consumption of bait, due to the addition of a phagostimulant, needs to be observed in the field before an increase in the efficacy of baits in a termite management program can be claimed. In Australia, softwood timbers are extensively used in building construction and are generally highly susceptible to damage by termites. I focussed on field feeding assays to test efficacy of borate-treated softwoods against termites and to define "adequate" protection thresholds. Laboratory and field data reported in the literature were confusing with regard to what constitutes "adequate" protection thresholds. The confusion was compounded by differences in termite species, timber species used and test methodology. Laboratory data indicated a borate loading of 0.5% m/m boric acid equivalent (BAE) would cause > 90% termite mortality and restrict mass loss in test specimens to 5%. Field data generally suggested that borate loadings in excess of 0.5% m/m BAE were required. The main contribution of the work to increasing our understanding of management options for termites in the built environment was in resolving the confusion between laboratory and field data for borate wood-preservatives. These apparently conflicting results were explained by the presence or absence of untreated feeder material in the test environment. In the absence of untreated feeder material, retention of 0.5% BAE provides adequate protection from Coptotermes sp., whereas in the presence of untreated feeder material, increased retentions are required. Furthermore, the retentions required increase with increased amounts of susceptible material. Some termites, Nasutitermes sp. and M. darwiniensis, for example, are borate-tolerant and borate wood-preservatives are not a viable management option. The lack of uniform standards for termite-test methodology and assessment criteria for efficacy across the world is recognized as a difficulty with research into the performance of wood preservatives with termites. The many variables in laboratory and field assays make "prescriptive" standards difficult to recommend. The use of "performance" standards to define efficacy criteria ("adequate" protection) is discussed. Whilst the majority of the work involves subterranean termites ("termites"), I examine the question of how to define a hardwood timber species as "not susceptible" to lyctine beetle damage. Aspects of the biology, behaviour and management of Lyctus brunneus (Stephens) are reviewed and a novel field sampling and testing protocol to establish lyctine susceptibility of timber species is presented. A sound understanding of the biology and behaviour of xylophagous insects in the field is essential to ensure that management options implemented in the built environment have a strong ecological basis. The success of this study in achieving stated aims, the need for further work and the implications for test methodologies in the field with practical relevance to infestations of xylophagous insects in the built environment are discussed.

O fungo Pleurotus ostreatus pertence ao grupo de basidiomicetos que degradam madeira. Este cogumelo cultivado em todo mundo apresenta grande rusticidade e produtividade, e pode ainda ser usado em processos de biorremediação e biopolpação. Devido a seu potencial biotecnológico, torna-se interessante a compreensão da interação deste com outros microrganismos. Neste sentido, recentemente foi observada a presença de bactérias associadas a P. ostreatus em culturas in vitro, que apresentavam grande pleomorfismo. A partir desta observação foram elaborados ensaios que visaram a confirmação da presença de bactérias. Para tanto, foi utilizada a estratégia do “Ciclo Completo de Análise do rRNA” (full-cycle rRNA analysis) empregada em microrganismos não cultiváveis ou de crescimento fastidioso, além do emprego de técnicas de microbiologia básica, e de estudos de ultraestrutura. Os estudos de microbiologia básica indicaram que se tratava de um microrganismo fastidioso e que se desenvolvia melhor na presença do fungo em sistema de co-cultivo em meios contendo Tween 80 ou Tween 20. Por sua vez, a análise de ultraestrutura demonstrou a presença de estruturas pleomórficas, tanto internamente como externamente à hifa. Em relação ao “Ciclo completo de Análise do rRNA” este se iniciou pela amplificação e seqüenciamento de parte do rDNA bacteriano, que revelou a proximidade desta bactéria com o Complexo Burkholderia cepacia (CBC). A partir desta seqüência, foi realizado um estudo de bioinformática que indicou sondas específicas para este grupo de bactérias. Completando o Ciclo completo de Análise do rRNA, foram realizados ensaios de hibridização in situ fluorescente (FISH) para a confirmar a relação entre as estruturas bacterianas e a seqüência obtida. Este método comprovou a presença das bactérias no interior das hifas de P. ostreatus. Este trabalho constitui o primeiro relato de bactérias pleomórficas pertencente ao complexo B. cepacia associados a P. ostreatus. / The fungus Pleurotus ostreatus, which belongs to white rot basidiomycete group, is a widely cultivated mushroom; this species has high productivity and rusticity, besides its use in biobleaching and bioremediation processes. This biotechnological potential justifies microbial interaction studies between this fungi and others microorganisms. In P. ostreatus mycelia, it has been observed pleomorphic bacteria growing on agar media. This research describes several assays to confirm bacterial presence in this sample. Therefore, the full-cycle rRNA analysis (described for unculturable or fastidious microorganism), ultrastructure and basic microbiology approaches were employed. Basic microbiology approaches indicated slow growing bacteria, which grown faster near to fungi colonies in solid media amended with Tween 80 or Tween 20 (co-culture system). Ultrastructure studies confirm the presence of intracellular and extracellular pleomorphic bacteria. The full-cycle rRNA analysis started with 16S rDNA amplification and sequencing. This approach demonstrated a relation between these bacteria with Burkholderia cepacia complex. By bioinformatics analysis was determinate which DNA probes can be use to identified this bacterial group. The last step for full-cycle rRNA analysis was applying fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). This technique confirmed the relationship between 16S rDNA bacterial sequence and bacterial forms. This is the first time that a pleomorphic bacteria from B. cepacia complex is found associated with P. ostreatus.