The mechanism of steroid transport and corticosterone secretion in the zona fasciculata-reticularis of rat adrenal cortex was investigated by measuring the subcellular distribution and concentrations of steroids following ACTH stimulation.

Thesis (M.S.)--Brigham Young University. Dept. of Physiology and Developmental Biology, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 54-57).

Les hyperplasies micronodulaires pigmentées de la surrénale (PPNAD) sont les tumeurs endocrines les plus fréquentes d’un syndrome multinéoplasique d’origine génétique, le Complexe de Carney. Ces hyperplasies bilatérales sont associées à des mutations inactivatrices de PRKAR1A, le gène codant la sous-unité régulatrice R1 de la protéine kinase dépendante de l’AMPc (PKA). Ces tumeurs bénignes conduisent à une activation constitutive de la PKA responsable d’un hypercortisolisme indépendant de l’ACTH (syndrome de Cushing), associant diverses comorbidités telles que l’obésité centrale, le diabète, l’ostéoporose, des troubles de l’humeur ou encore des complications cardiovasculaires. Cependant, les mécanismes de cette tumorigenèse restent mal compris. Afin d’évaluer les conséquences de l’activation de la signalisation PKA sur l’induction tumorale et l’activité endocrine, l’équipe a précédemment généré un modèle de souris transgéniques reproduisant l’inactivation de Prkar1a dans la corticosurrénale. Ces souris développent une hyperplasie bilatérale composée de cellules présentant des caractéristiques fœtales naturellement absente d’une surrénale adulte. L’objectif général de ce travail de thèse était d’identifier l’origine des cellules constituant cette hyperplasie retrouvée dans le cortex interne des souris mutantes. Nous avons utilisé pour cela une approche génétique de lignage cellulaire afin de tracer chez la souris, l’origine de ces tumeurs après invalidation de Prkar1a dans les précurseurs du cortex définitif ou dans ceux du cortex fœtal. Les résultats montrent que l’activation de la signalisation PKA dans le cortex surrénalien adulte est suffisante pour promouvoir le développement d’hyperplasies surrénaliennes associées à la mise en place d’un syndrome de Cushing. L’invalidation de Prkar1a dans les précurseurs du cortex fœtal ne conduit à aucune anomalie endocrine ni tumorale. En revanche, l’activation de la signalisation PKA dans le cortex adulte favorise le renouvellement cellulaire centripète, l’identité fasciculée et sa conversion en identité réticulée dans la partie interne. L’activation de la signalisation PKA, conjointement à la croissance corticale, apparait donc comme un moteur possible de l’adrénarche, normalement restreinte aux grands primates.L’analyse transcriptomique des surrénales et les expériences de lignages cellulaires montrent que la prédisposition des femelles au syndrome de Cushing et au développement d’hyperplasies « pseudo-réticulée » pourraient reposer sur un dimorphisme sexuel des capacités de recrutement des cellules progénitrices et sur le métabolisme du cholestérol.En parallèle de ces travaux, l’exploration des mécanismes conduisant à la présence inappropriée de cellules « pseudo-réticulée » nous a amené à tester l’implication de la SUMOylation dans les défauts de zonation observés. Nos résultats montrent que l’activation de la signalisation PKA in vitro et in vivo exerce une hypoSUMOylation globale, d’origine transcriptionnelle. En accord avec cet effet, les nodules présents chez les patients atteints de PPNAD sont hypoSUMOylés. Enfin nous montrons chez les deux espèces, un gradient de SUMOylation régionalisé dans le cortex qui suggère l’implication de cette modification dans la zonation de la glande surrénale. / Primary Pigmented Nodular Adrenal Disease (PPNAD) is the most frequent endocrine manifestation of a rare, dominantly inherited multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome, the Carney Complex. These bilateral hyperplasia are associated with inactivating mutations of PRKAR1A, the gene encoding the R1 regulatory subunit of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). These benign tumors lead to constitutive activation of PKA, responsible for an ACTH-independent hypertcortisolism (Cushing's syndrome), associating various comorbidities such as central obesity, diabetes, osteoporosis, mood disorders or cardiovascular complications. However, the mechanisms of tumorigenesis remain poorly understood. In order to evaluate the consequences of activation of PKA signaling on tumor induction and endocrine activity, the team previously generated a model of transgenic mice reproducing the inactivation of Prkar1a in the adrenal cortex. These mice develop bilateral hyperplasia composed of cells with fetal characteristics naturally absent from an adult adrenal gland.The general objective of this thesis was to identify the origin of the cells constituting this hyperplasia found in the internal cortex of the mutant mice. We used a genetic approach of cell lineage to trace the origin of these tumors after deletion of Prkar1a in the precursors of the adult or fetal cortex.The results show that activation of PKA signaling in the adult cortex is sufficient to promote the development of adrenal hyperplasia associated with Cushing's syndrome. The ablation of Prkar1a in the precursors of the fetal cortex does not lead to any endocrine or tumor abnormalities. On the contrary, activation of PKA signaling in the adult cortex promotes centripetal cell renewal, fasciculata identity and its conversion into reticularis identity in the internal part of the gland. The activation of PKA signaling, together with cortical growth, therefore appears to be a possible motor of adrenarche, normally restricted to human and some primates.Transcriptomic analysis of the adrenals and cell lineage experiments show that female predisposition to Cushing's syndrome and development of "pseudo-reticularis" hyperplasia may be based on sexual dimorphism of progenitor cell recruitment capacities and on metabolism of cholesterol.In parallel, the exploration of the mechanisms leading to the inappropriate presence of "pseudo-reticularis" cells led us to test the involvement of SUMOylation in the observed zonation defects. Our results show that the activation of PKA signaling in vitro and in vivo exerts a global hypoSUMOylation, of transcriptional origin. In agreement with this effect, the nodules present in patients with PPNAD are hypoSUMOylated. Finally, we show in both species a regionalized SUMOylation gradient in the cortex that suggests the implication of this modification in the zonation of the adrenal gland.

Cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) are steroids produced by the zona fasciculata (ZF) and reticularis (ZR), respectively, of the adrenal cortex. Both steroids are upregulated in response to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). Cortisol is a glucorticoid that is important in the regulation of inflammation and metabolism. DHEA is an adrenal androgen important in fetal growth and puberty but tends to decrease gradually after puberty in both men and women. DHEA has various effects on metabolism and immune function including inhibiting the effects of cortisol on some tissues. During the acute phase of stress, cortisol and DHEA rise due to an increase in ACTH released from the anterior pituitary. In contrast, during chronic stress, cortisol remains elevated but DHEA and ACTH levels decrease. Likewise, stress causes serum levels of IL-6 to increase. IL-6 increases cortisol release from the human and bovine adrenal cortex. IL-6 also decreases DHEA release from zona reticularis of the bovine adrenal gland. In humans the effect of IL-6 on DHEA production is still uncertain. To determine a possible mechanism of IL-6 on the zona fasciculata and reticularis, human H294R cells and bovine adrenal tissue were incubated in serum free medium containing IL-6, at various concentrations and incubation intervals. At the end of the incubation interval, mRNA or protein was extracted from the cells or tissue. Standard PCR, real time PCR, and western blot assays were used to determine the effects of IL-6 on the enzymes involved in cortisol and DHEA synthesis, steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1), steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), and dosage sensitive sex reversal adrenal hypoplasia congenita critical region on the X chromosome, gene 1 (DAX-1). In human H295R cells and bovine zona fasciculata cells IL-6 caused an increase in SF-1, StAR, P450scc, 17α hydroxylase, 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (3β HSD2), 21 hydroxylase, and 11β hydroxylase mRNA and protein. IL-6 caused DAX-1 mRNA and protein to decrease. These effects were manifest in a time dependent manner. Dose response treatments incubated for 60 min increased SF-1, StAR, P450scc, 17α hydroxylase, 3β HSD2, 21 hydroxylase, and 11β hydroxylase but there was not significant change between the different treatments of IL-6. The bovine zona reticularis stimulated with IL-6 showed a decrease in SF-1, StAR, P450scc, 17α hydroxylase, and 3β HSD2 with an increase in DAX-1 mRNA and protein. This response was manifest in a time dependent manner for both mRNA and protein, and the effect was dose-dependent for mRNA but not protein levels within the 60 min time period. These data provide a mechanism by which increased stress, physical or emotional, which increases IL-6 serum level, could increase cortisol and decrease DHEA. This would account for decreased immune function, increased blood pressure, and changes in metabolism.

The adrenal cortex is a crucial endocrine gland in the mammalian stress response. In chronic inflammatory stress, cortisol is elevated whereas adrenal androgens are decreased. Furthermore, ACTH levels have poor correlation with the plasma cortisol in these conditions, thus suggesting that other factors are driving the stress response during chronic inflammatory stress. Interleukin-6 (IL-6), a cytokine which is released during chronic inflammatory stress, is assumed to be one such factor. Thus the biochemical pathways by which IL-6 increases cortisol release from the zona fasciculata (ZF), and decreases adrenal androgen release from the zona reticularis (ZR) were investigated. Since IL-6 activates AMP-activated kinase (AMPK) in skeletal muscle, AMPK was investigated for IL-6- induced effects in ZF and ZR tissue. The effects of AMPK activation and IL-6 exposure on the expression of the steroidogenic proteins, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and cholesterol side chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc), and on the steroidogenic nuclear factors steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1) and adrenal hypoplasia congenita, critical region on the X chromosome, gene-1 (DAX-1) were investigated. AMPK activation and IL-6 exposure increased the expression of StAR, P450scc, and SF-1, and decreased DAX-1 in the ZF. Meanwhile, AMPK activation and IL-6 exposure decreased the expression of StAR, P450scc, and SF-1, and increased DAX-1 in the ZR. AMPK inhibition blocked the effects of AMPK activation and IL-6 on the ZF and ZR. Activator Protein-1 (AP-1) was the second biochemical intermediate studied since in other tissues AMPK activation increases the expression and phosphorylation of AP-1 subunits. IL-6 stimulation and AMPK activation increased the expression of the AP-1 subunits cFOS, cJUN, JUN B, and JUN D, while increasing the phosphorylation of cJUN in both the ZF and the ZR. These effects were blocked by AMPK inhibition. Inhibition of AP-1 leads to decreased StAR, P450scc, and SF-1, and increased DAX-1 in the ZF. Meanwhile, AP-1 inhibition leads to increased StAR, P450scc, SF-1, and decreased DAX-1 in the ZR. Therefore the AP-1 complex functions as a biochemical intermediate in the IL-6 and AMPK regulation of steroidogenic enzymes in the ZF and ZR. Overall, the results suggest that IL-6 activates AMPK, which increases the expression and phosphorylation of AP-1 subunits in the ZF and the ZR. However, increased AP-1 activation leads to increased StAR and P450scc in the ZF, but decreased StAR and P450scc in the ZR.