Utilizing the analytical solution of the steady state sharp interface saltwater intrusion model in coastal aquifers, a multi-objective optimization formulation of pumping rates and well locations in a coastal aquifer is formulated to solve problems in water management practice. The proposed optimization problem uses progressive genetic algorithm technique and the method developed is applied to the previous work of Cheng et al. [2000]. Through this analysis, several other applications are provided to demonstrate the use of the model in practical applications. This work is the first to optimize pumping rates as well as well locations simultaneously in coastal aquifer management. Known the limitation of the analytical solution, the work is expanded to cover the physics of saltwater intrusion in a more realistic way. This is variable density flow in a variably saturated porous medium. In this method, mixing between two fluids such as saltwater and freshwater can be described and the porous medium is also expanded to cover saturated and unsaturated zones together. One of the objectives is to develop a three dimensional physical model, verify the model, and apply to various applications in coastal aquifers. The developed model, TechFlow, is used to investigate instability issues associated with the numerical solution of the Elder problem in the perspective that includes physical instability issues associated with density differences used in numerical solutions, sensitivity of the solution to idealization irregularity, and the importance of accurate estimation of the velocity field and its association to the grid density levels that is necessary to solve the problem accurately. Saltwater intrusion hydrodynamics in a beach under the influence of tidal effects is also investigated using TechFlow. Based on the results of TechFlow with the use of various boundary conditions for the transport equation, the saltwater intrusion hydrodynamics in a beach under the influence of tidal effects shows unique dynamics. These solutions are primarily affected by density differences, tidal effects on a mild slope, variably saturated porous medium and finite domain solution condition. TechFlow is also used to investigate saltwater upconing beneath pumping wells both two- and three-dimensional applications.

Coastal urban settlements require a special planning approach since they bring the concepts of &ldquo / urban&rdquo / and &ldquo / coastal&rdquo / together. In relation to the specific contents of these concepts, there are also different models of management plans. &ldquo / Urban Disaster Risk Management&rdquo / and &ldquo / Integrated Coastal Zone Management&rdquo / are two of them. Urban Disaster Risk Management model deals with the planning and management problems of urban settlements in the case of disaster risk conditions. Likewise, Integrated Coastal Zone Management model focuses on the whole coastal area and deals with the sustainable use and protection of all types of coastal resources. However, in case of urban coastal settlements, these models of management plans can be valid together, can overlap, and they can even conflict with each other. In this thesis study, these two models of management plan and their coexistence are considered. A Coastal Area Assessment Model is set up and applied for Iskenderun case. This model provides a detailed spatial analysis opportunity in planning and management of coastal urban settlement. Therefore the model offers a significant input for the planning process through determining urban and coastal risks at the same time. Coastal Area Assessment Model is a tool which takes both Urban Disaster Risk Management and Integrated Coastal Zone Management models&rsquo / concerns into account and evaluates the coastal settlement in terms of urban risk sectors and coastal management issues. This study also introduces an approach on classification of the coastal areas and coastal urban settlements while setting up the Coastal Area Assessment Model. Coastal Area Assessment Model becomes an advantageous tool since it has significant contributions to the planning process by making a simple risk analysis and guiding the proper utilization and protection of the population, built environment, and resources of the coastal areas. Risk sectors, coastal management issues, critical and prior intervention areas of a coastal urban settlement are easily determined, and preparation of development plans of a coastal settlement is guided by the implementation of Coastal Area Assessment Model. In addition to these, general principles on planning and management of coastal settlements are determined by the implementation of the model for the implementation conditions of Urban Disaster Risk Management model, Integrated Coastal Zone Management model, and the Coastal Area Assessment Model in Turkey are also discussed and presented.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) cannot be managed outside the context of human societies that are dependent on their associated ecosystems and resources. This means that local people’s perceptions need to be considered in the establishment of MPAs as well as their subsequent management, planning and decision making processes. Accordingly, this study investigated respondents’ perceptions of the Ponta do Ouro – Kosi Bay MPA. The MPA is part of the now proclaimed Lubombo Trans-frontier Conservation Area (TFCA). An interviewer - administered questionnaire was used to obtain primary data from 35 respondents, all resident in the study area and who are involved in various activities based on the coastal area and its marine resources. The focus of the study was on awareness regarding the establishment, impacts of the MPA, the setting of priorities for the MPA and lastly, respondents’ roles and responsibilities The findings from the study reveal low levels of awareness of the establishment of the MPA among respondents, although there was acknowledgement of its potential contribution to biodiversity conservation. Various types of impacts of the establishment of the MPA were noted. The establishment of the MPA was perceived to negatively impact on the access to, and use of, marine resources. It was also felt that the MPA would impact on the exercise of traditional authority. Concerning the setting of future priorities for the MPA, socio-economic considerations, particularly job creation rated highest. Biodiversity conservation ranked highest in terms of factors that should shape the current priorities of the MPA. Overall, tourism and related job creation and biodiversity conservation were identified as the main opportunities associated with the establishment of the MPA. Controlling access to the area, curbing inappropriate resource use, controlling development and ensuring that local people benefit were highlighted as major opportunity benefits. Constraints were mainly considered in relation to the exercise of traditional leadership, access to the area and restrictions in selling of harvested marine resources. Regarding how to collaborate in the MPA, various skills among the respondents were mentioned, with respect to the following areas: enforcement (control, patrols and security) and community relations and awareness (including communication and the translation of documents). Lastly, while the respondents displayed both supportive and unsupportive attitudes as results of perceptions of the intended MPA, in an overall sense, the MPA was considered as a positive development. This was in spite of the perceived weak communications that exist at present between the authorities and local people. Enhanced, communication between authorities in charge of the MPA and local people could help to provide a more positive sentiment towards the MPA. This is particularly true of the local people who, if they understood the rationale for the MPA more fully and how it would impact on their use of the resources of the MPA, would be more likely to support its establishment and existence. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

The coastal zone accommodates some of the most diverse ecosystems in the world and offers a wide range of ecosystem goods and services; consequently it has become a focal point of human development. People are attracted to the coast because of access to resources, favourable climate, aesthetic appeal and potential for recreational activities. As pressure for utilisation and development increases, so does the need to manage the coastal system more effectively. This research focuses on the coastal zone of the Ndlambe and Ngqushwa local municipalities in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, which are physically and environmentally similar, yet have distinct demographic and socio-economic differences. The research integrates information using GIS, from three time epochs, to determine where development and land use change is occurring. The Ndlambe Local Municipality displays high levels of formal development, while the Ngqushwa Local Municipality exhibits little formal development. These differences in development and land use are related to economic, social and legislative ‘drivers’ based on an adapted Driver-Pressure-State- Impact-Response model. The model identifies that development and land use changes lead to increased pressure on the natural system, which in turn leads to shifts in the natural state of the coastal zone, resulting in adverse impacts on the coastal zone. Changes in the natural functioning of the coastal zone highlight the need for a response in terms of changes in legislation governing coastal management and spatial planning. This research concludes that pressure for development in the coastal zone within the research site is beginning to increase and will adversely affect the coastal zone if not managed effectively. These two local municipalities have the opportunity to move forward and develop in such a way that allows for conservation and sound management of the coastal zone, which will ensure long-term sustainability within the coastal zones of the Ndlambe and Ngqushwa local municipalities

Les Infrastructures de Données Géographiques (IDG) ont été mises en place depuis une vingtaine d’années afin notamment de contribuer aux politiques publiques environnementales en facilitant la mise à disposition et le partage des informations géographiques. Au vu des dynamiques en cours relatives à la fois à la production et à la circulation de l’information géographique environnementale, le questionnement à l’origine de cette thèse s’inscrit dans le cadre général d’une meilleure compréhension des pratiques de gestion de l’environnement. Il concerne l’étude de la contribution des IDG à la Gestion Intégrée des Zones Côtières (GIZC) française, gouvernance territoriale spécifique et complexe pour laquelle le recueil et le partage, notamment via les IDG, d’informations géographiques ont été identifiés depuis les années 2000 comme des composantes majeures pour fonder la politique de la mer et du littoral. Néanmoins, la contribution effective des IDG dépend des réponses qu’elles apportent à leurs usagers. Du point de vue méthodologique, ce travail de recherche met en oeuvre une stratégie exploratoire se focalisant sur les usages et les besoins des acteurs côtiers ainsi que sur la nature complexe et dynamique des IDG : - Une enquête nationale basée sur un questionnaire en ligne et exploitée par une triple analyse : statistique, par réseaux sociaux (Social Network Analysis) et thématique ; - Une étude de cas infranationale, reposant sur des entretiens semi-directifs auprès de personnes-ressources et analysée thématiquement puis par diagrammes de flux de données (DFD). Ces techniques de recueil et d’analyse ont été choisies et mises en oeuvre de manière intégrée et complémentaire pour permettre une compréhension, une explication et une généralisation du système IDG dans le contexte de la GIZC. Pour chacune des phases de la recherche, trois types de résultats sont dégagés : le profil des usagers, les IDG jouant un rôle dans la gestion des littoraux français, et leur contribution à la gestion de ces territoires. Il ressort de cette série de synthèses, d’abstractions et de modélisations, une contribution à la connaissance des phénomènes d’appropriation des IDG et des flux informationnels associés. / Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDIs) have been implemented over the last twenty years in particular in order to contribute to Environmental Policy by improving geographic information access and sharing processes. Given the current dynamics of both production and circulation of environmental geographic information, the general aim underlying this research is part of the general framework for a better understanding of environmental management practices. This research focuses specifically on French SDIs and their contribution to Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), a complex form of territorial governance for which the collection and sharing, particularly via SDIs, of geographic information have been identified, since the 2000s, as a major component on which to found coastal and marine public policies. However, the real contribution of SDIs depends on the answers they provide to their users. From a methodological perspective, this PhD is implemented by an exploratory research approach focusing on the usages and needs of coastal stakeholders as well as on the complex and dynamic nature of SDIs. The research approach is divided into two phases: - A national online survey examined by a triple analysis: Statistical analysis, Social Network Analysis (SNA) and thematic analysis;- A sub-national case study based on semi-structured interviews with key informants and analyzed thematically and by Data Flow Diagrams (DFD). These data collection and analysis techniques have been selected and implemented in an integrated and complementary approach to enable understanding, explanation and generalization of the "SDI system" in the context of ICZM. For each phase of the research, three types of results emerged: the profile of users, the type of SDIs playing a role in the management of French coasts, and their contribution to the management of these areas. The above-described research has resulted in a contribution to the knowledge of SDI appropriation and the associated information flows.

Marine and coastal ecosystems face widespread degradation largely because market failure hides the economic value of the goods and services provided by them. Marine protected areas (MPAs) can serve as a structure that ensures the continuing function of marine and coastal ecosystem goods and services. Yet, to be effective and sustainable, MPAs must be able to prove their economic worth and generate revenue. User-fees are a common system used to partially finance multi-use MPAs. This study applies contingent valuation as a method of economic valuation within an MPA in southern Mozambique. The objectives of this study are to determine the willingness to pay of combined user groups and of individual user groups for use of the Ponta do Ouro Partial Marine Reserve and to investigate the potential for the reserve to increase revenues for conservation through the implementation of a user-fee for marine based activities. The payment card contingent valuation method was employed to determine willingness to pay of dolphin swim tourists, scuba divers and fishermen. Data was collected by face-to-face interviews of 120 respondents within two popular tourist locations in the PPMR. Results show that visitors within the PPMR are mainly South Africans, loyal to the area. Probit and OLS regressions were used to determine the effects of various independent variables on willingness to pay. Results from the Probit model indicate that African residency, activity and environmental awareness were significant factors that influenced visitors being WTP more than R20 per person per day as a user fee within the PPMR. The OLS model examined independent variables that influenced visitors being willing to pay as well as the impact of the variables on the amount visitors were willing to pay. The OLS model found income, African residency and environmental awareness to be significant factors influencing visitors being willing to pay. The mean WTP was R43.75 per person per day. Using data supplied by the PPMR, conservative estimated annual revenues based on the implementation of this fee amount would range between R1.46m – R 3.3m.

Under the growing demand for marine fish resources, and the apparent and expected impacts of global climate change, there is a need to conduct long-term monitoring (LTM) to ensure effective management of resources and conservation of biodiversity. However LTM programmes often suffer from design deficiencies and fail to achieve their objectives. These deficiencies stem from the fact that insufficient consideration is afforded to the design phase, with programmes selecting methods that are not suitable to address the objectives, or are not cost-efficient, compromising the sustainability of the LTM. To facilitate the establishment of LTM programmes along the southern coast of South Africa, background research needed to be conducted to identify which methods were most appropriate for LTM of reef fish. This study presents a detailed field-based assessment of the suitability and cost-efficiency of monitoring methods for long-term monitoring of reef fish in the Agulhas Ecoregion of South Africa. The approach adopted to identify the method, or suite of methods most suited for LTM, involved (i) the selection of methods considered suitable for LTM, (ii) the individual assessment and optimisation of method performance, and (iii) the comparative assessment of the fish community sampled by the different methods. The most suited method(s) were then identified as those that provide the most comprehensive assessment of the fish community and had the highest cost-efficiency. The research was conducted between January 2008 and 2011 in the Tsitsikamma and Table Mountain National Park (TNP and TMNP, respectively) marine protected areas (MPAs) within the Agulhas Ecoregion. The methods selected included fish traps (FT), controlled angling (CA), underwater visual census (UVC), remote underwater video (RUV), baited RUV (BRUV) and remotely operated vehicles (ROV). The individual assessment and optimisation was conducted with the FT, UVC, RUV and BRUV methods. The assessment of the FT method aimed to identify the optimal soak time, and whether or not the size of the funnel entrance to the trap affected the catch. The results identified that larger funnel entrances caught more fish and soak times of 80 minutes produced the highest catches per unit effort. However the data were highly variable and the method detected few of the species typical of the region. Fish traps were also associated with high levels of mortality of fish post-release. The assessment of UVC strip transect method involved directly comparing the precision of data collected by researchers and volunteers using a novel double-observer technique (paired-transects). The results showed considerable error in both the volunteers and researchers data, however the researchers produced significantly higher precision data, compared to the volunteers. The distinction between researchers and volunteers was not evident in the data for the dominant species of fish. For all observers, the abundance of a species in the sample had a significant influence on its detectability, with locally scarce or rare species poorly detected. UVC was able to sample the majority of species typical of reefs in the region, however it appeared plagued by observer and detectability biases. The assessments of RUV and BRUV were conducted simultaneously which enabled the assessment of the effect of bait on the observed fish community. In addition the optimal deployment time for both methods to maximise species richness and abundance was determined. The results showed that BRUV, and to a lesser degree RUV, were able to effectively survey the reef fish community for the region with a 50 minute and 35 minute deployment time, respectively. Baited remote underwater video was especially good at detecting the invertebrate and generalist carnivores, and cartilaginous species. On the other hand, RUV was more effective at surveying the microinvertebrate carnivores. Remote underwater video was characterised by higher data variability, compared to BRUV, and was ultimately considered a less cost-efficient monitoring method. Comparative methods assessments were conducted during two field experiments with the FT, UVC and BRUV methods in the TMNP MPA, and the FT, CA, UVC, RUV, BRUV and ROV methods compared in the TNP MPA. The objectives of the comparison were to investigate differences in the fish communities observed with the different methods, and to determine the power of the data to detect an annual 10% growth in the fish populations over a period of five years. The results from the method comparison were in turn used to conduct the cost-benefit analysis to determine the efficiency of the different methods at achieving monitoring objectives requiring population data from multiple trophic and functional groups with the community, and from species of fisheries importance. The results indicated that FT, CA and ROV were ineffective at monitoring the reef fish community, although CA appeared to provide valuable data for the dominant fisheries species. Both CA and FT required minimal initial investment however, the variability in the data translated into high annual monitoring costs, as the required sampling effort was great. The ROV required the highest initial investment and was identified as the least cost-efficient method. Underwater visual census was able to adequately survey the bony fish within the community, however it did not detect the cartilaginous species. Underwater visual census required a large initial investment and was not cost-efficient, as a many samples were required to account for the variability in the data. Remote underwater video provided a comprehensive assessment of the reef fish community, however it too was associated with high levels of variability in the data, compared to BRUV, reducing its cost-efficiency. BRUV provided the most comprehensive assessment of the reef fish community and was associated with the highest cost-efficiency to address the community and fisheries species monitoring objectives. During the course of this research stereo-BRUV has gained considerable support as an effective reef fish monitoring method. Although not tested during this research, stereo-BRUV is preferred to BRUV as it provides accurate data on the size of fish. However, the initial investment of stereo-BRUV is over three times that required for the BRUV. Although it is recommended that a baited video technique be used for LTM in the Agulhas Ecoregion, the choice between BRUV and stereo-BRUV will depend on the specific objectives of the programme and the available budget at the implementing agency.

Larval fish and zooplankton assemblages were studied in nine south and west coast estuaries in the cool-temperate and the cool/warm-temperate boundary region between June 2003 and March 2004. This study served to provide new information on previously unstudied estuaries and expand on existing knowledge of larval fish and zooplankton assemblages associated with various estuary types. The south and west coast estuaries sampled in this study showed lower salinities (12.2 - 13.7), lower water temperatures (14.5 - 16.9 °C) and higher turbidities (k = 0.02 - 0.04) in winter and spring while higher salinities (21.7 - 21.8), higher water temperatures (21.7 - 23.1°C) and lower turbidities (k <0.02) were observed in summer and autumn. Mean winter and summer water temperatures in estuaries were lower than those observed in warm-temperate and subtropical systems by other researchers. A total of 49274 larval fishes were caught, comprising 9 orders, 20 families, 29 genera and 47 taxa. The clupeid Gilchristella aestuaria (78.8 %) dominated the larval fish assemblages and occurred in all estuaries. The majority (70 %) of identified species are endemic to southern Africa and 96.4 % of larval fishes caught were estuary-resident species. The zooplankton study yielded a total of 44 taxa, comprising 7 phyla, >20 orders and >35 families. The copepod Pseudodiaptomus hessei dominated (59 %) the zooplankton and occurred in similar densities to those observed in other South African estuaries. Larval fish and zooplankton varied across seasons, peaking simultaneously in summer although zooplankton showed additional density peaks during the closed phase of some estuaries. Both plankton components were more abundant in the oligohaline and mesohaline zones within the estuaries. Freshwater input, estuary type and the biogeography of the area influenced the composition and structure of larval fish and zooplankton assemblages in these estuaries. The findings suggest that the estuaries are functioning as successful breeding areas for the larvae of endemic estuary-resident fish species and that these estuaries have to be managed to ensure an adequate freshwater supply to maintain the biological integrity of the ecosystem, specially the maintenance of the highly productive River-Estuary Interface (REI) regions.

The management of coastal resources in South Africa has come under review as a result of the degradation of environmental resources along the coast. The challenge being faced by resource managers is to achieve economic growth while sustaining South Africa’s coastal resource base (Nobel, 2000). The South African government (RSA, 2000) has developed a coastal management strategy to meet this challenge: The strategy involves the inclusion of all stakeholders in the formation of policy regarding the management of coastal resources, in a more integrated approach to coastal management. To effectively achieve this stakeholder inclusion, it has become necessary to decentralize the political, administrative and fiscal authority to conduct coastal management functions. With regard to the need for fiscal decentralisation this thesis considers the possibility of implementing localised environmental surcharges to finance coastal management initiatives. The ability of the White Paper for Sustainable Coastal Development (RSA, 2000) to provide theformal institutional structure necessary for the introduction of environmental surcharges is firstconsidered. It is shown that the decentralised management strategy has the potential to create a management style that is transparent and accountability orientated. In addition to this the style is capable of adapting to dynamic local coastal conditions and is therefore an appropriate direction in which to steer coastal management in South Africa. The effectiveness of coastal co-management as an informal institutional arrangement is then examined. Provided that local Coastal Management Fora are created to include all relevant stakeholders and that a source of long term financing is secured co-management has the potential to create the conditions necessary for effective coastal management. With regard to a source of long term financing, local environmental surcharges to finance coastal management initiatives are considered. The public’s willingness to contribute to such a surcharge is analysed in the context of Plettenberg Bay by probing their willingness to pay (WTP) for a Bay Management Plan. A survey instrument is developed to measure the public’s WTP. The design of the instrument is based on the Contingent Valuation (CV) method that is used to analyse the nonmarket benefits that environmental resources (such as Plettenberg Bay) provide the public. It is found that the resident population is willing to pay R15 per month toward a Bay Management Plan whilst domestic and foreign tourists respectively are willing to pay R6 and R22 daily. The aggregation of these WTP estimates yields a total passive use value of between R15 397 900 – R20330 500 annually. This nuclear value of the Bay should be included in the formation of local coastal management policy and provides guidance for the introduction of a local environmental surcharge. A budget for a Bay Management Plan is proposed and a progressive surcharge based on municipal property value is set. To finance the local residents’ share of the budget, a monthly surcharge of R1 would be required of the average valued property. To calculate the domestic and foreign tourist contribution to the budget a schedule of accommodation offering property will be required. However, to finance the entire budget a residential surcharge of approximately R10 would be required of the average valued property. This figure is well below the average resident population WTP of R15, highlighting the fact that an environmental surcharge in Plettenberg Bay is indeed feasible. The difference in reported WTP and the contribution required to finance the Bay Management Plan also highlights that there is scope for experimentation in the introduction of such a surcharge.

The larval fish and zooplankton assemblages were studied in the permanently open Sundays Estuary on the south-east coast of South Africa, using standard boat-based plankton towing methods. A total of 8174 larval and early juvenile fishes were caught, representing 12 families and 23 taxa. The Clupeidae, Gobiidae and Blenniidae were the dominant fish families. Common species included Gilchristella aestuaria, Caffrogobius gilchristi, Omobranchus woodi, Liza dumerilii, Glossogobius callidus and Myxus capensis. Estuarine resident species (Category I) predominantly in the preflexion developmental stage, dominated the system. A total of 19 zooplankton taxa were recorded. Copepoda dominated the zooplankton community. Dominant species included Pseudodiaptomus hessei, Acartia longipatella, Halicyclops sp., Mesopodopsis wooldridgei, and the larvae of Paratylodiplax edwardsii and Hymenosoma orbiculare. Mean larval fish density showed similar trends seasonally, spatially and across salinity zones, with mean zooplankton density in the Sundays Estuary. Gut content analysis of five larval fish species: Gilchristella aestuaria, Pomadasys commersonnii, Monodactylus falciformis, Myxus capensis and Rhabdosargus holubi, revealed species specific diet and prey selection. Although larval fish diet contained a variety of prey items, guts were dominated by P. hessei, chironomid larvae, Corophium triaenonyx, copepod eggs and insect larvae. Physico-chemical drivers and the interactions between these two plankton communities provide information that enables a more holistic view of the dynamics occurring in the Sundays Estuary planktonic ecosystem.